Elevated emissions of melamine and its derivatives in the indoor environments of typical e-waste recycling facilities and adjacent communities and implications for human exposure
21
Citation
43
Reference
10
Related Paper
Citation Trend
Keywords:
Cyanuric acid
Electronic waste
Waste Recycling
Tolerable daily intake
Melamine and cyanuric acid have been reported to occur in animal products. Nevertheless, information that pertains to the occurrence of melamine and cyanuric acid in cattle feed and urine is lacking. In this study, the occurrence of melamine and its three derivatives (i.e., cyanuric acid, ammeline, and ammelide) was determined in 183 bovine urine and 29 matched feed samples collected from China, India, and the United States. ∑Melamine (sum of four target compounds) was found in all urine samples at concentrations that ranged from 4.2 to 5280 ng/mL (median: 370 ng/mL); cyanuric acid was the major derivative, accounting for 97% of the total concentrations, followed by melamine (2.2%). The ubiquitous occurrence of ∑Melamine in feed (21-6230 ng/g) suggests that it is the major source of melamine and its derivatives in bovines. Urinary concentrations of melamine and cyanuric acid varied significantly among the three countries, with samples from China as having the highest concentrations, followed by the United States and India. The calculated cumulative daily intakes of melamine and cyanuric acid were at least 10-fold below the current tolerable daily intake recommended for humans. Our study provides evidence-based data on exposure patterns and sources of melamine and cyanuric acid in cattle.
Cyanuric acid
Cite
Citations (16)
Cyanuric acid
Electronic waste
Waste Recycling
Tolerable daily intake
Cite
Citations (21)
Cyanuric acid
Tolerable daily intake
Food contaminant
Cite
Citations (5)
Melamine received public and regulatory attention in 2008 following a scandal that involved the adulteration of milk and infant formula in China that affected tens of thousands of infants. Little is known about human exposure and the food chain transfer of melamine and its derivatives. In this study, melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, and ammelide were analyzed in 100 human milk samples collected from the United States during the period of 2009–2012. ∑Melamine (sum of melamine and its three derivatives) was found in breast milk at concentrations that ranged from 0.176 to 10.0 ng/mL (median: 1.40 ng/mL). Cyanuric acid was the major derivative, accounting for 73% of the total concentrations, followed by melamine (21%). No remarkable associations were noted between melamine and cyanuric acid concentrations and maternal/infant characteristics. The cumulative daily intakes of melamine (16.9–30.6 ng/kg bw/day) and cyanuric acid (88.8–161 ng/kg bw/day) were calculated for breast-fed infants and were found to be 1–2 orders of magnitude below the current tolerable daily intake. This is the first study to report the distribution of melamine and its derivatives in breast milk from the United States.
Cyanuric acid
Tolerable daily intake
Cite
Citations (38)
We determined the concentrations of melamine, ammeline, ammelide, and cyanuric acid in meat, fish and seafood, cereal products, beverages, cooking oil, and vegetables (n = 121) collected from Albany, New York, United States. In addition, food packaging (n = 24) and animal feed (n = 12) were analyzed to determine the sources of melamine and its derivatives in foods. Among the six categories of foods analyzed, median concentrations of ∑melamine (sum of melamine and its three derivatives) in meat (23.6 ng/g fresh weight; fw) and cereal products (20.9 ng/g fw) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those in other food categories (<5.03 ng/g fw). Cyanuric acid and melamine were the major compounds, accounting for 51% and 26% of the total ∑melamine concentrations, respectively. ∑melamine was found ubiquitously in food packaging (median: 36.2 ng/g fw) and animal feed (56.5 ng/g fw), which are two important sources of melamine found in foodstuffs. The median estimated daily dietary intakes (including concentrations reported for dairy products in our previous study) of melamine and cyanuric acid were in the ranges of 13.4-72.7 and 75.4-347 ng/kg body weight/day, respectively, for various age groups. Dairy products, cereal products, and meat were major sources of dietary melamine (~76%) and cyanuric acid (~95%) exposure. The calculated hazard quotients for dietary exposure to melamine and cyanuric acid were well below 1.0, which suggested minimal risk from current exposures.
Cyanuric acid
Tolerable daily intake
Hazard quotient
Food contaminant
Cite
Citations (50)
Following food scandals involving melamine during 2007–2008, health risks from human exposure to this compound received worldwide attention. Since then several studies have reported sources of melamine exposure in humans. In this pilot study, leaching of melamine and cyanuric acid from melamine-based bowls was tested under normal cooking conditions. Four brands of melamine bowls (n = 10) were purchased randomly from among many similar products available in the market. Water-based simulants were used in leaching tests under four conditions; water at room temperature (25 °C), hot water (90–100 °C), 1% acetic acid in water (v/v), and 10% methanol in water (v/v). The concentrations of melamine leached from bowls were reported on the basis of the surface area that came in contact with the leaching solution. The highest concentration of melamine leached was 0.37–70.2 ng/cm2 found in hot water, followed by water at room temperature (<0.03–49.0 ng/cm2), 10% methanol/water (0.27–7.03 ng/cm2), and 1% acetic acid/water (0.20–6.54 ng/cm2). On the basis of the concentrations of melamine leached, daily intakes (EDIs) were calculated from the ingestion of water. In the high-exposure scenario, the EDIs of melamine reached up to 620 μg/kg bw/day for infants and these values were 1.24 times higher than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Our study suggests that melamine-based tableware are a source of human exposure to this nephrotoxicant.
Cyanuric acid
Food contact materials
Tolerable daily intake
Cite
Citations (17)
Cyanuric acid
Tolerable daily intake
Food contact materials
Acute kidney failure
Pet food
Animal Feed
Cite
Citations (121)
China Sanlu milk powder incident has been drawn widespread attention for melamine at home and abroad.In recent years,it has been reported continually that the toxic effects of melamine,especially melamine together with cyanuric acid on human,rat, chicken,swine and other different animals.In this review,we covered physical and chemical properties of melamine and cyanuric acid, effects on human,mouse,chicken and other small animals,as well as the composition of stones caused by melamine.It was expected that the information included in this paper might be helpful for further research in this field.
Cyanuric acid
Cite
Citations (0)
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was asked by the European Commission to provide a scientific opinion related to the presence of melamine and the structural analogues (cyanuric acid, ammeline and ammelide) in food and feed. EFSA identified the potential sources of melamine and cyanuric acid in food that were not clearly related to incidences of adulteration, including food contact materials, and estimated the associated dietary exposure. Melamine does not exhibit systemic toxicity, but is able to complex with other substances such as endogenous uric acid or substances related to melamine to form crystals in the urine, which cause kidney damage. From the available toxicological data, a Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of 0.2 mg/kg body weight was established for melamine. Due to uncertainties in the exposure estimates, the human data related to adulteration in infant milk formula with melamine in 2008 were not considered to be sufficiently robust, to form the primary basis for the TDI, but provided supporting evidence for the TDI derived from animal studies. The exposure from background levels of melamine and cyanurate that can occur in food and feed from approved sources does not represent a risk to the human consumer or to animals. Exposure in children due to migration from food contact materials would be below or in the region of the TDI. The migration limit for melamine should be reconsidered in the light of the TDI taking into account all sources of exposure. The potential of melamine to form crystals is increased by concomitant exposure to cyanuric acid, and therefore the TDI is not appropriate for protection of consumer health in the presence of such concomitant exposure. This opinion does not consider the potential exposure to melamine and/or cyanurate that can arise from adulteration with these substances.
Cyanuric acid
Food contact materials
Tolerable daily intake
European commission
Food additive
Pet food
Expert opinion
Food contaminant
Cite
Citations (108)