Assessing gender responsiveness of COVID-19 response plans for populations in conflict-affected humanitarian emergencies
Yara M. AsiPriliantina BebasariEmily HardyMichelle LokotKristen MeagherEmilomo OgbeAteeb Ahmad ParrayVandana SharmaClaire J. StandleyLuissa Vahedi
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The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated rapid development of preparedness and response plans to quell transmission and prevent illness across the world. Increasingly, there is an appreciation of the need to consider equity issues in the development and implementation of these plans, not least with respect to gender, given the demonstrated differences in the impacts both of the disease and of control measures on men, women, and non-binary individuals. Humanitarian crises, and particularly those resulting from conflict or violence, exacerbate pre-existing gender inequality and discrimination. To this end, there is a particularly urgent need to assess the extent to which COVID-19 response plans, as developed for conflict-affected states and forcibly displaced populations, are gender responsive.Using a multi-step selection process, we identified and analyzed 30 plans from states affected by conflict and those hosting forcibly displaced refugees and utilized an adapted version of the World Health Organization's Gender Responsive Assessment Scale (WHO-GRAS) to determine whether existing COVID-19 response plans were gender-negative, gender-blind, gender-sensitive, or gender-transformative.We find that although few plans were gender-blind and none were gender-negative, no plans were gender-transformative. Most gender-sensitive plans only discuss issues specifically related to women (such as gender-based violence and reproductive health) rather than mainstream gender considerations throughout all sectors of policy planning.Despite overwhelming evidence about the importance of intentionally embedding gender considerations into the COVID-19 planning and response, none of the plans reviewed in this study were classified as 'gender transformative.' We use these results to make specific recommendations for how infectious disease control efforts, for COVID-19 and beyond, can better integrate gender considerations in humanitarian settings, and particularly those affected by violence or conflict.Keywords:
Preparedness
Gender analysis
Gender Mainstreaming
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A qualitative social and gender analysis was carried out in June 2015 in Luwingu and Mbala Districts in Northern Province, Zambia. The research explored the norms and power relations at various institutional levels that constrain certain social groups from benefiting from programmatic investments aimed at improving livelihoods, health status, and food and nutrition security within the Irish Aid Local Development Programme (IALDP). This technical paper provides a summary of the research findings, lessons learned and suggests options for action the IALDP could consider to help bring about gender transformative change in the lives and livelihoods of poor and vulnerable people.
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Abstract The connections between gender and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are profound, and the sector is beginning to explore the integration of gender-transformative principles into WASH programming and research. Gender-transformative approaches challenge inequalities and move beyond an instrumentalist approach to gender in development interventions. Through a critical review of academic empirical studies, this paper explores the last decade of WASH-gender literature (2008–2018). Trends were visualised using an alluvial diagram. The reviewed literature was underpinned by a diversity of disciplines, yet was dominated by women-focused, water-focused studies. Although the studies addressed many important gender considerations, few studies engaged with transformational aspects of gender equality. The majority of the studies were based in rural sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, indicating opportunity to explore contextual dynamics in other areas of the global south. Lastly, the studies primarily focus on women of productive age; only a few studies touched on gender dynamics relevant for a diversity of women, and men and boys were mostly absent. Insights from this analysis can inform future studies at the intersection of WASH and gender. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to include a diversity of voices, reflect on the strengths and limitations of research disciplines, and incorporate gender-transformative concepts.
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This is an exploratory study attempting to expand the limited literature covering international training programmes (ITPs) with a gender focus. ITPs are a capacity development tool used by organisations such as, among others, Sida. This study focused on one such gender ITP called “Local Democracy and Social Sustainabil- ity with a Gender Perspective”, which was conducted by the International Centre for Local Democracy (ICLD). The question addressed in this study was whether the Gender programme was transformative or integrationist. To answer this ques- tion, arguments were used from debates about gender mainstreaming, about the strategies towards gender equality and about transformative versus integrationist capacity of such strategies. Fieldwork was also conducted in Serbia, one of the participating countries of the Gender programme, with interviews comprising a large part of this effort. The study found that there were some transformative as- pects to the Gender ITP but that there were also several issues, such as a failure to both challenge power and social relationships and acknowledge the existence of an active opposition to gender equality.
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Abstract Gender mainstreaming, with its promise of gender transformation, equality and empowerment, has become a central pillar of development discourse, policy and practice. Yet, the implementation of these promises has largely been disappointing. Proposed ‘solutions’ have brought little new to the table. This article suggests that we need to rethink the link between policy and implementation, recognising that both are political processes and that while policies set agendas, both policies and their implementation are deeply influenced by societal factors. Drawing on critical development analysis and feminist writings, the article explores the transformative potential of gender mainstreaming in international development organisations in an increasingly complex, unequal and gendered world. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Mainstreaming: Changing the Deep Structure of Organizations. This article argues that gender mainstreaming will only be successful if a transformative agenda setting process is used through which the institutional cultures of organizations are changed. This implies an engagement with the deep structure of organizations. The deep structure of most organizations is the embedded masculinist values and norms that are normalized so that everyone accepts them. This deep structure is most often resistant to gender transformative change. The article suggests a gendered archaeological investigation as well as the implementation of a transforming gender mainstreaming model through which gender mainstreaming becomes acceptable. The article draws on gender mainstreaming research done with the United Nations Development Programme in South Africa.
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Dutch development agencies have actively taken up gender mainstreaming strategies since the mid‐1990s. This article considers two gender mainstreaming instruments, gender targets and gender assessments, and investigates their transformative effect. A five shifts approach is applied to both the instruments' design on paper and the implementation in practice. The analysis reveals two disconnections, which undermine their transformative potential: between organisational and operational level of policies and between the administrative and conceptual aspects. The emptying and narrowing down of the concept of gender is made possible because the desired transformation of policy is made an individual affair rather than institutional affair. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Although some gender activists and analysts question the efficacy of gender mainstreaming to take forward women's demands, the South African government has pursued the strategy within a number of government departments including the Department of Education. This article explores how the strategy is being implemented in one provincial education department. Using data generated in 2008–9 through case study methods that employed aspects of an ethnographic approach, a key finding was that both the social justice aspiration and the technical interventions associated with the policy are considerably hampered by lack of resources and a clear policy framework. Many charged with implementing gender mainstreaming draw on memories of activism and international policy declarations give promise of a possibility of a transformative fix, although the absence of resources to secure this remain a matter for concern.
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Бұл зерттеужұмысындaКaно моделітурaлы жәнеоғaн қaтыстытолықмәліметберілгенжәнеуниверситетстуденттерінебaғыттaлғaн қолдaнбaлы (кейстік)зерттеужүргізілген.АхметЯссaуи университетініңстуденттеріүшін Кaно моделіқолдaнылғaн, олaрдың жоғaры білімберусaпaсынa қоятынмaңыздытaлaптaры, яғнисaпaлық қaжеттіліктері,олaрдың мaңыздылығытурaлы жәнесaпaлық қaжеттіліктерінеқaтыстыөз университетінқaлaй бaғaлaйтындығытурaлы сұрaқтaр қойылғaн. Осы зерттеудіңмaқсaты АхметЯсaуи университетіндетуризмменеджментіжәнеқaржы бaкaлaвриaт бaғдaрлaмaлaрыныңсaпaсынa қaтыстыстуденттердіңқaжеттіліктерінaнықтaу, студенттердіңқaнaғaттaну, қaнaғaттaнбaу дәрежелерінбелгілеу,білімберусaпaсын aнықтaу мен жетілдіружолдaрын тaлдaу болыптaбылaды. Осы мaқсaтқaжетуүшін, ең aлдыменКaно сaуaлнaмaсы түзіліп,116 студенткеқолдaнылдыжәнебілімберугежәнеоның сaпaсынa қaтыстыстуденттердіңтaлaптaры мен қaжеттіліктерітоптықжұмыстaрaрқылыaнықтaлды. Екіншіден,бұл aнықтaлғaн тaлaптaр мен қaжеттіліктерКaно бaғaлaу кестесіменжіктелді.Осылaйшa, сaпa тaлaптaры төрт сaнaтқa бөлінді:болуытиіс, бір өлшемді,тaртымдыжәнебейтaрaп.Соңындa,қaнaғaттaну мен қaнaғaттaнбaудың мәндеріесептелдіжәнестуденттердіңқaнaғaттaну мен қaнaғaттaнбaу деңгейлерінжоғaрылaту мен төмендетудеосытaлaптaр мен қaжеттіліктердіңрөліaйқын aнықтaлды.Түйінсөздер:сaпa, сaпaлық қaжеттіліктер,білімберусaпaсы, Кaно моделі.
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Over the past three decades the United Nations (UN) has made important strides to promote gender mainstreaming as a strategic approach for achieving gender equality commitments through toolkits, manuals and training [[1]Allotey P. Remme M. Lo S. Doing gender better: can the UN step up?.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10189: 2371-2372Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar]. Despite these efforts, the envisioned transformative potential of gender mainstreaming has fallen short across the UN and other global institutions [[1]Allotey P. Remme M. Lo S. Doing gender better: can the UN step up?.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10189: 2371-2372Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar,[2]Nivedita C. Deshpande M. Role of feminist movements in gender mainstreaming policies: the case of UN.Int J Res Anal Rev (IJRAR). 2019; (-01): 6Google Scholar]. Covid-19 has also proved that these efforts are not enough. Inadequate leadership and coordination for the implementation of gender mainstreaming policies, inconsistent support from member states, and a shift in focus to technocratic solutions in place of transformative ideals continue to hamper gender mainstreaming efforts [[3]Ravindran T. Kelkar-Khambete A. Gender mainstreaming in health: looking back, looking forward.Glob Public Health. 2008; 3: 121-142https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690801900761Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar]. International institutions also remain male-dominated in norms, attitudes and procedures. For example only 25% of women lead in global health, despite making up 70% of the global workforce [[4]Delivered by women, led by men: A gender and equity analysis of the global health and social workforce. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019 (Human Resources for Health Observer Series No. 24).Google Scholar]. Moreover, Covid-19 has also imposed an extra burden on female health and social care workers, however, women have not been represented equally in decision-making bodies for Covid-19 responses [[4]Delivered by women, led by men: A gender and equity analysis of the global health and social workforce. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019 (Human Resources for Health Observer Series No. 24).Google Scholar]. As of January 2021, only seven women made up the 21 member WHO Emergency Committee on Covid-19 [[5]World Health Organization. COVID-19 IHR emergency committee. Available at: https://www.who.int/groups/covid-19-ihr-emergency-committee, accessed March 4, 2021Google Scholar]. At the national level females make up a minority of governments' Covid-19 task forces [[6]Rajan D. Koch K. Rohrer K. Bajnoczki C. Socha A. Voss M. et al.Governance of the Covid-19 response: a call for more inclusive and transparent decision-making.BMJ Global Health. 2020Crossref Scopus (62) Google Scholar]. Gender equality is still largely treated as a separate issue or delegated to specialized agencies or divisions such as UN Women, the Division for the Advancement of Women, and the Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality. In response there have been calls for UN institutions to 'do gender better' [[1]Allotey P. Remme M. Lo S. Doing gender better: can the UN step up?.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10189: 2371-2372Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar]. Within global health, the World Health Organization (WHO) committed to a new strategy to monitor its performance and accountability measures, strengthen engagement with civil society, and build capacity among senior and technical staff to support gender mainstreaming [[7]Magar V. Heidari S. Zamora G. Coates A. Simelela P.N. Swaminathan S. Gender mainstreaming within WHO: not without equity and human rights.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10182: 1678-1679Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (9) Google Scholar]. The WHO department of Gender, Equity and Rights was established to build programmatic and organizational mainstreaming capacity to address the impact of power relations and gender norms on people's health across the life course [[7]Magar V. Heidari S. Zamora G. Coates A. Simelela P.N. Swaminathan S. Gender mainstreaming within WHO: not without equity and human rights.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10182: 1678-1679Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (9) Google Scholar]. The focus is on mainstreaming gender as a relational concept that intersects with other drivers of inequalities, such as poverty, age, sexuality, ethnicity, and disability to impact on people's exposure to risk factors, vulnerabilities, and health outcomes [[7]Magar V. Heidari S. Zamora G. Coates A. Simelela P.N. Swaminathan S. Gender mainstreaming within WHO: not without equity and human rights.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10182: 1678-1679Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (9) Google Scholar]. In another example, the Pan American Health Organization, the WHO Regional Office for the Americas, adopted a policy in 2017 on Ethnicity and Health to address health inequalities among Indigenous peoples [[8]Policy on Ethnicity and Health. 160th Session of the Executive Committee. CE160/15. Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization, Washington, DC. 2017. Available at: https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/34195/CE160-15-e.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=yGoogle Scholar]. Indigenous women in particular have especially high rates of maternal mortality which are partly due to culturally inappropriate health services, stigmatization and discrimination due to gender and ethnicity [[7]Magar V. Heidari S. Zamora G. Coates A. Simelela P.N. Swaminathan S. Gender mainstreaming within WHO: not without equity and human rights.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10182: 1678-1679Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (9) Google Scholar]. The policy places emphasis on addressing the connection between ethnicity, gender, equity, and human rights in response to health service barriers rooted in discrimination, racism and exclusion [[8]Policy on Ethnicity and Health. 160th Session of the Executive Committee. CE160/15. Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization, Washington, DC. 2017. Available at: https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/34195/CE160-15-e.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=yGoogle Scholar]. Such integrated approaches to gender mainstreaming enable the development of a strong social justice agenda - to not only improve health and equity outcomes, but to also advance women's rights and empowerment [[3]Ravindran T. Kelkar-Khambete A. Gender mainstreaming in health: looking back, looking forward.Glob Public Health. 2008; 3: 121-142https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690801900761Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar,[9]Manandhar M. Hawkes S. Buse K. Nosrati E. Magar V. Gender, health and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development.Bull World Health Organ. 2018; (Available at:)www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/96/9/18-211607/en/Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar]. The interconnected nature of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offers UN institutions a significant opportunity to support a transformative approach to gender equality. Covid-19 is also advocated as an opportunity to build a fairer society. However, challenges remain. Mainstreaming gender within global health institutions must not be seen as a technocratic exercise or the sole responsibility of a gender focal point. We support calls to increase institutional commitment at senior management levels for addressing gender equality and to strengthen accountability mechanisms for programming and results [[1]Allotey P. Remme M. Lo S. Doing gender better: can the UN step up?.Lancet. 2019; 393 –10189: 2371-2372Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar]. Robust measures for 'doing gender better' backed by resources and action are needed. Stronger working relationships with and across government and civil society will enable joint cooperation for gender mainstreaming within country strategies and plans. To strengthen the transformative potential of gender mainstreaming, a feminist economic approach would help global health institutions address the intersection between power dynamics and the social, economic and political determinants of health delivery, resourcing, and decision-making for health [[10]Herten-Crabb A. Davies S. Why WHO needs a feminist economic agenda.Lancet. 2020; 395 –10229: 1018-1019Summary Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (8) Google Scholar]. Within the health workforce such an approach would bring attention to equal opportunities for women – pay, burden of work, career development – and the intersecting systems of discrimination that lead to inequalities faced by female health workers. Gender equality must be pursued as a transformational agenda in itself (SDG5), as well as a means for achieving other goals, including health, economic growth, and education. This requires a strong conviction and collective momentum among global institutions and country partners to implement innovative mainstreaming strategies to tackle the structural causes of gender inequalities. We encourage moving beyond traditional gender training models to give space for new ideas and younger and diverse voices to address intersecting inequalities such as ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity, including harmful male masculinity. We are hopeful that the commitments from countries and other partners to the UN Generation Equality Forum result in advancements in equality for women and girls, because real transformative social change still remains to be seen. The authors have no conflicts to declare. CR and AP undertook a literature search and contributed to the analysis. AP developed the first draft. FB and RH contributed to the analysis and interpretation, writing and editing. All authors reviewed and commented on drafts and agree with the final manuscript.
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