Dual-Function Analysis of Astaxanthin on Golden Pompano (Trachinotus ovatus) and Its Role in the Regulation of Gastrointestinal Immunity and Retinal Mitochondrial Dysfunction Under Hypoxia Conditions
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The present study investigated the potential mechanisms of astaxanthin in the regulation of gastrointestinal immunity and retinal mitochondrial function of golden pompano ( Trachinotus ovatus ). Triplicate groups of juvenile T. ovatus (mean initial weight: 6.03 ± 0.01 g) were fed one of six diets (D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, and D6) for 8 weeks, with each diet containing various concentrations of astaxanthin (0, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, or 0.1%, respectively). Growth performance of fish fed the D2–D5 diets was higher than that of fish fed the D1 diet; however, growth performance and survival of fish deteriorated sharply in fish fed the D6 diet. Gut villus in fish fed the D2–D5 diets were significantly longer and wider than that of fish fed the D6 diet. Feeding with D2–D5 diets led to increased abundance of Bacillus , Pseudomonas , Oceanobacillus , Lactococcus , Halomonas , Lactobacillus , and Psychrobacter while abundance of Vibrio and Bacterium decreased. Additionally, feeding with the D6 diet resulted in a sharp decline in Pseudomonas and Lactobacillus abundance and a sharp increase in Vibrio abundance. A low dissolved oxygen environment (DO, 1.08 mg/L) was conducted for 10 h after the rearing trial. No fish mortality was observed for any of the diet treatments. Lysozyme (LZY) activity in fish fed the D6 diet decreased sharply and was significantly lower than that in other groups. ROS production also decreased sharply in fish fed the D6 diet. Moreover, the conjunctiva and sclera in the fish fed the D6 diet were indistinguishable. Suitable dietary astaxanthin supplementation levels (0.005–0.1%) exerting a neuroprotective effect from low dissolved oxygen environments is due to up-regulated expression of anti-apoptotic factors, such as phosphorylated Bcl-2-associated death promoter (pBAD), phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3β (pGSK-3β), Bcl-2 extra large (Bcl-xL), and down-regulated expression of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) pro-apoptotic factor in retinas. Furthermore, suitable dietary astaxanthin levels (0.0005–0.01%) suppressed up-regulation of critical mitochondrial components, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), while excessive astaxanthin supplementation produces the opposite effect. In brief, high-dose astaxanthin arouses and aggravates low dissolved oxygen-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, intestinal disorder, retinal apoptosis, and retinal mitochondrial dysfunction in T. ovatus . Second-degree polynomial regression of WG indicated that the optimum dietary astaxanthin for juvenile T. ovatus is 0.049%.Keywords:
Fish mortality
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Abstract The recreational fishery for juvenile Bluefin Tuna Thunnus thynnus along the U.S. Atlantic coast has a large number of regulatory discards, but little information exists on the fate of released fish. We deployed 20 pop‐up satellite archival tags programmed to release after 31 d to estimate the postrelease mortality of school‐size (69–119 cm curved FL) Bluefin Tuna caught in the recreational troll fishery. All fish were captured using lures or lure–bait combinations rigged with standard “J” hooks. Nineteen of the 20 tags (95%) reported, and analysis of temperature, depth, and light data indicated that all 19 fish survived for the tagging period. Three tags released prematurely (after 6, 7, and 26 d), and we inferred that one individual was consumed by a shark after 12 d. However, all four of these fish displayed behavior indicative of survival until the tag either released or the fish was consumed. Although the power of this analysis is limited by the relatively small sample size, the observed postrelease mortality rate of 0% suggests that the recreational catch‐and‐release troll fishery for school‐size Bluefin Tuna does not represent a significant source of fishing mortality. Received September 24, 2013; accepted March 3, 2014
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The absorption of astaxanthin from diets (30 mg kg−1 inclusion) supplemented with either unesterified astaxanthin; isolated astaxanthin monoesters, diesters or a cell-free carotenoid extract from Haematococcus pluvialis were studied in rainbow trout (>200 g). No significant differences (P > 0.05) were recorded in the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) (≈60–65%) between astaxanthin sources. However, following consumption of a single meal, peak serum astaxanthin levels at 32 h (≈1.0–1.6 μg mL−1) were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in fish fed unesterified astaxanthin and astaxanthin monoester, compared to fish fed astaxanthin diester and the cell free extract. However, no significant differences (P > 0.05) were recorded in serum astaxanthin uptake rates between sources of astaxanthin. Results suggest that the extent of carotenoid esterification negatively influences the peak serum levels of astaxanthin in rainbow trout.
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The deposition of natural, optically active, astaxanthin fatty acid esters in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was studied. Mono-esterified and di-esterified (3S,3′S) astaxanthin were purified from the green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis and incorporated into extruded diets and compared with diets containing synthetic racemic astaxanthin (Carophyll Pink) and a total carotenoid extract from the alga. All sources of astaxanthin achieved >4 mg kg−1 in the white muscle after 6 weeks feeding. No significant difference (P > 0.05) between the deposition of astaxanthin or total carotenoid for the different diets was observed. Other xanthophylls, namely lutein, zeaxanthin and idoxanthin were found in the white muscle of rainbow trout fed all diets and together accounted for 10–14% of total carotenoid. Astaxanthin was deposited in the white muscle in the stereochemical form administered in the diet, i.e. racemic astaxanthin for Carophyll Pink and ˜100% (3S,3′S)-astaxanthin for the algal sources. In contrast, epimerization of (3S,3′S) astaxanthin from the alga was observed for the astaxanthin esters deposited in the skin of rainbow trout, with a ratio close to 1.0:2.0:1.0 (3S,3′S:3R,3′S:3R,3′R).
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Astaxanthin is a carotenoid used widely in salmonid and crustacean aquaculture to provide the pink color characteristics of that species.The ketocarotenoid astaxanthin can be found in microalgae, yeast and crustacean byproducts.Astaxanthin represents the unique properties of the structure.The astaxanthin molecule has two geometric isomers, cis or trans due to the double bond from the poliene chain.The separation of these isomers is very difficult using ordinary techniques.This paper reviews the current available evidence regarding astaxanthin chemistry and its potential beneficial effects in humans as well as the methods of the extraction and separation of astaxanthin.
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The red color of processed shrimp, one of the most attractive attributes and an important criterion for consumers, is often limited by thermal processing (microwaving, boiling and frying), due to astaxanthin degradation. The effect of thermal processing on astaxanthin in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) were investigated. A High-performance liquid chromatographic - atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (LC-(APCI)-MS/MS) method was used to identify and quantify all-trans- and cis-isomers of astaxanthin, and molecular species of astaxanthin esters in fresh and thermal processed shrimps. Total astaxanthin loss ranged from 7.99% to 52.01% in first 3 min under three thermal processing. All-trans-astaxanthin was most affected, with a reduction from 32.81 to 8.72 μg kg–1, while 13-cis-astxanthin had a rise (from 2.38 to 4.58 μg kg–1). Esterified astaxanthin was shown to hydrolyze and degrade, furthermore astaxanthin diesters had a better thermostability compare to astaxanthin monoesters. Astaxanthin monoesters with eicosapntemacnioc acid (EPA, C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6), had a lower thermal stability than those with saturated fatty acids, however, it was the opposite of astaxanthin diesters. The findings suggested that the method of thermal processing should be carefully used in the manufacturing and domestic cooking of shrimps. The results also could be useful in calculating the dietary intake of astaxanthin and in assessing astaxanthin profiles and contents of shrimp containing products.
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