Intestinal transport of Cylindrospermopsin using the Caco-2 cell line
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Keywords:
Cylindrospermopsin
Paracellular transport
Transcellular
Caco-2
Intestinal epithelium
Cyanotoxin
Water Transport
Zwitterion
Intestinal mucosa
Cyanobacteria are capable of thriving in almost all environments. Recent changes in climatic conditions due to increased human activities favor the occurrence and severity of harmful cyanobacterial bloom all over the world. Knowledge of the regulation of cyanotoxins by the various environmental factors is essential for effective management of toxic cyanobacterial bloom. In recent years, progress in the field of molecular mechanisms involved in cyanotoxin production has paved the way for assessing the role of various factors on the cyanotoxin production. In this review, we present an overview of the influence of various environmental factors on the production of major group of cyanotoxins, including microcystins, nodularin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxins and saxitoxins.
Cyanotoxin
Cylindrospermopsin
Environmental toxicology
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Cyanotoxins are posing an increasing threat to the health of humans and wildlife. Cylindrospermopsin is a cyanotoxin that occurs in warm climates and is harmful when ingested. The toxic effects of CYN can affect multiple organ systems. The effects, coupled with the evidence of a mass contamination of a water supply in Australia, prove that CYN needs to be investigated further.
Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Aptamer
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Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Environmental toxicology
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The wide distribution of cyanobacteria in aquatic environments leads to the risk of water contamination by cyanotoxins, which generate environmental and public health issues. Measurements of cell densities or pigment contents allow both the early detection of cellular growth and bloom monitoring, but these methods are not sufficiently accurate to predict actual cyanobacterial risk. To quantify cyanotoxins, analytical methods are considered the gold standards, but they are laborious, expensive, time-consuming and available in a limited number of laboratories. In cyanobacterial species with toxic potential, cyanotoxin production is restricted to some strains, and blooms can contain varying proportions of both toxic and non-toxic cells, which are morphologically indistinguishable. The sequencing of cyanobacterial genomes led to the description of gene clusters responsible for cyanotoxin production, which paved the way for the use of these genes as targets for PCR and then quantitative PCR (qPCR). Thus, the quantification of cyanotoxin genes appeared as a new method for estimating the potential toxicity of blooms. This raises a question concerning whether qPCR-based methods would be a reliable indicator of toxin concentration in the environment. Here, we review studies that report the parallel detection of microcystin genes and microcystin concentrations in natural populations and also a smaller number of studies dedicated to cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin. We discuss the possible issues associated with the contradictory findings reported to date, present methodological limitations and consider the use of qPCR as an indicator of cyanotoxin risk.
Cyanotoxin
Cylindrospermopsin
Saxitoxin
Environmental toxicology
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Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Microcystis
Microcystin-LR
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Cylindrospermopsin
Paracellular transport
Transcellular
Caco-2
Intestinal epithelium
Cyanotoxin
Water Transport
Zwitterion
Intestinal mucosa
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The widespread distribution of cyanobacteria and their toxic effects on humans has become a major concern for researchers. Cyanobacteria are a group of oxygenic phototrophic bacteria that exhibit an enormous diversity in shapes and arrangements and occupy widespread habitats that include brackish, marine and fresh water. The major concern among these organisms is not so much the cyanobacteria themselves but their toxin production. Under suitable circumstances, cyanobacteria can reach high biomass levels and form toxic algal blooms. These toxins, known as cyanotoxins, are produced as secondary metabolites by several cyanobacterial species. Cyanotoxins affect not only aquatic ecosystems but also impact on human health. The current work focuses on the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin that was originally known to be produced by the cyanobacterium species Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii but has since been identified in a number of other cyanobacterial species. Cylindrospermopsin is hepatotoxic and acts as a strong inhibitor of protein synthesis. The increasing occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms is of major concern, particularly within drinking water supply systems. Therefore, the investigation of more effective water treatment technologies is of great importance in order to ensure the removal of these potent toxins. There are many techniques that have been used so far, but the need to use an effective and efficient method to remove the toxicity is paramount. Removal of the toxin by the use of microbial degradation has been evaluated. Experiments with different strains of bacterial isolates showed positive signs in the removal of toxin by Biolog MT2 assay. In addition to that shake flask culture experiments were carried out and did not show any significant removal of the toxin. Studies with natural water sources showed some pronounced effect on the removal of CYN. The use of TiO2 photocatalysis as another potential water treatment strategy was also evaluated. Current study successfully demonstrated the potential degradation of purified cylindrospermopsin using the titanium dioxide (TiO2) photocatalysis treatment method. TiO2 photocatalysis was performed by using a powder form (Degussa P25) catalyst effectively removing the toxin; however, the powder is difficult to remove from the treated water. TiO2 pellets (Hombikat K01/C) were found to be slower in degradation although they allowed for an easier adaption to a continuous treatment system. As an alternative Photospheres(TM) (buoyant glass beads coated in TiO2) was evaluated and showed the same efficacy as that of Degussa P 25. Studies were extended to investigate the application of UV-LEDs in the photocatalysis reaction to show better efficiency.
Cylindrospermopsin
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Cyanotoxin
Saxitoxin
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Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Microcystis
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In recent years, freshwater ecosystems have undergone changes in their physical, chemical and biological properties due to eutrophication processes. The increase of nutritive compounds in the water leads to an accelerated growth of all aquatic productivity, especially in the cyanobacteria communities. The densification of the cyanobacteria community in the water surface leads to the production of cyanotoxins, secondary metabolites that contribute to the degradation of the water quality and has serious consequences for both the environment, animal and human health. With a high variety of chemical variants and several degrees of toxicity, cyanotoxins can be grouped according to their mode of action in hepatotoxins (microcystins, nodularins), cytotoxins (cylindrospermopsin), neurotoxins (anatoxin-a, saxitoxin) and dermatotoxins (lyngbyatoxin, aplysiatoxin). The aim of this study is to detect the presence of microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and saxitoxin in freshwater systems from the North and Center of Portugal, through chemical, biochemical and molecular methods. To achieve such goal, environmental samples from seven freshwater systems from the North and Center of Portugal were analyzed for the presence of amplified fragments of genes involved in cyanotoxin biosynthesis (molecular methods) and, when those fragments were present, samples were quantified in order to detect and quantify toxins, through chemical and biochemical methods. The results showed the presence of microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and saxitoxin in the studied freshwater systems and the potential for their production by the cyanobacteria genera present in the water environment. Also the efficiency of the molecular methods in monitoring programs to detect the presence of cyanotoxins and their producing cyanobacteria genera revealed to be an effective and valuable tool. In the absence of other information about the presence of anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin in Portuguese freshwater systems, this study constitutes the first report of the presence of these cyanotoxins in Portuguese freshwater systems.
Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Saxitoxin
Freshwater ecosystem
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Cyanobacteria are aquatic micro-organisms that pose a great threat to aquatic ecosystems by the production of dense blooms, but most importantly by the production of secondary metabolites, namely the cyanotoxins. One of these is cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a hepatotoxic polyketide-derived alkaloid with well-known associated cases of animal mortalities and human morbidity. First described as being associated with liver damage, this toxin is now considered a cytotoxic and a genotoxic toxin, due to its effects in other organs and in DNA. Its occurrence has been reported so far in eight different cyanobacteria species and in several water samples from four of the five continents. With a guideline value of 1 μg l(-1), CYN is now considered the second most studied cyanotoxin worldwide. It is important to review the information regarding the findings made until now about this cyanotoxin 30 years since its first report.
Cylindrospermopsin
Cyanotoxin
Environmental toxicology
Hepatotoxin
Microcystin-LR
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Lake ecosystem
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Citations (107)