Advances in the understanding of cancer immunotherapy
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Abstract:
The principal role of the immune system is to prevent and eradicate pathogens and infections. The key characteristics or features of an effective immune response include specificity, trafficking, antigen spread and durability (memory). The immune system is recognised to have a critical role in controlling cancer through a dynamic relationship with tumour cells. Normally, at the early stages of tumour development, the immune system is capable of eliminating tumour cells or keeping tumour growth abated; however, tumour cells may evolve multiple pathways over time to evade immune control. Immunotherapy may be viewed as a treatment designed to boost or restore the ability of the immune system to fight cancer, infections and other diseases. Immunotherapy manifests differently from traditional cancer treatments, eliciting delayed response kinetics and thus may be more effective in patients with lower tumour burden, in whom disease progression may be less rapid, thereby allowing ample time for the immunotherapy to evolve. Because immunotherapies may have a different mechanism of action from traditional cytotoxic or targeted biological agents, immunotherapy techniques have the potential to combine synergistically with traditional therapies.Keywords:
Cancer Immunotherapy
After immunization of rats with heterophilic antigen (boiled homogenates of guinea-pig kidney), their immune responses to sheep red cells were consistently depressed, whereas those to heterophilic antigen were increased, as compared with controls. The suppression of immune responses to sheep red cells in rats immunized with heterophilic antigen may represent an animal model paralleling the interference with Rh immunization of ABO incompatibility in man. Experiments intended to elucidate the mechanism of this interference included simultaneous administration of sheep red cells and heterophilic antigen; comparison of antibody formation in intact and splenectomized rats; and passive immunization with isophilic and/or heterophilic antibodies prior to challenge with sheep red cells. On the basis of the experimental observations, a hypothesis was proposed according to which cellular diversion of antigen may be responsible for these inhibitions of immune responses.
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Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that works by harnessing the power of the immunesystem to recognize and attack cancer cells. Unlike traditional cancer treatments likechemotherapy and radiation therapy, which directly target cancer cells, immunotherapy aims toboost the body's natural defenses against cancer. The immune system is a complex network ofcells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body against harmful invaders likeviruses, bacteria, and cancer cells. Normally, the immune system is able to recognize and destroycancer cells as they develop, but sometimes cancer cells can evade detection and continue togrow and spread. Immunotherapy works by stimulating the immune system to recognize andattack cancer cells more effectively.
Cancer Immunotherapy
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Abstract The immune system is composed of immune organs, immune cells, and immunoactive substances, which plays a vital role in antitumor immunity in cancer immunotherapy. During the process of the antitumor immune response, many factors are involved in the cancer immune cycle. Therefore, developing intelligent strategies based on the steps of the cancer immune cycle to elicit the immune responses for enhanced cancer immunotherapy is of great significance. In this review, the key factors in each step of the cancer immune cycle are discussed, and then, the intelligent therapeutic strategies for modulating the immune surveillance against cancer are highlighted. Considering the demand for cancer immunotherapy in clinic, some suggestions for constructing new intelligent strategies are also put forward, which will make antitumor immunity more effective and advance the development of cancer immunotherapy.
Cancer Immunotherapy
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The idea of exploiting the immune system to treat tumors (cancer immunotherapy) is at least a century old. Immunotherapy is generally classified into two functional approaches: Passive immunotherapy administers preformed elements of the immune system (tumor-reactive antibodies, antitumor cytokines, or tumoricidal effector cells) to patients with the intent that these agents will directly attack the cancer cells. Active immunotherapy (including tumor vaccines and immunostimulatory cytokines) is intended to stimulate the patients' immune system to generate effective antitumor immunity. Both passive and active immunotherapies are integral parts of modern medical practice for problems as diverse as the treatment of snakebites and the prevention of infectious diseases. Yet, for cancer, the role of the immune system and immunotherapy has been a topic of spirited debate for the last 50 years (1). Major points of contention have been whether tumor cells are immunogenic in their host of origin and whether the immune system is capable of controlling or eradicating malignant cells.
Cancer Immunotherapy
Active immunotherapy
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Cancer Immunotherapy
Biocompatibility
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Cancer immunotherapy has been intensively investigated in both preclinical and clinical studies. Whereas chemotherapies use cytotoxic drugs to kill tumor cells, cancer immunotherapy is based on the ability of the immune system to fight cancer. Tumors are intimately associated with the immune system: they can suppress the immune response and/or control immune cells to support tumor growth. Immunotherapy has yielded promising results in clinical practice, but some patients show limited responses. This may reflect the complexities of the relationship between a tumor and the immune system. In an effort to improve the current immunotherapies, researchers have exploited nanomaterials in creating new strategies to cure tumors via modulation of the immune system in tumor tissues. Although extensive studies have examined the use of immune checkpoint-based immunotherapy, rather less work has focused on manipulating the innate immune cells. This review examines the recent approaches and challenges in the use of nanomaterials to modulate innate immune cells.
Cancer Immunotherapy
Immune checkpoint
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The principal role of the immune system is to prevent and eradicate pathogens and infections. The key characteristics or features of an effective immune response include specificity, trafficking, antigen spread and durability (memory). The immune system is recognised to have a critical role in controlling cancer through a dynamic relationship with tumour cells. Normally, at the early stages of tumour development, the immune system is capable of eliminating tumour cells or keeping tumour growth abated; however, tumour cells may evolve multiple pathways over time to evade immune control. Immunotherapy may be viewed as a treatment designed to boost or restore the ability of the immune system to fight cancer, infections and other diseases. Immunotherapy manifests differently from traditional cancer treatments, eliciting delayed response kinetics and thus may be more effective in patients with lower tumour burden, in whom disease progression may be less rapid, thereby allowing ample time for the immunotherapy to evolve. Because immunotherapies may have a different mechanism of action from traditional cytotoxic or targeted biological agents, immunotherapy techniques have the potential to combine synergistically with traditional therapies.
Cancer Immunotherapy
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Immunotherapy has demonstrated impressive outcomes for some patients with cancer. However, selecting patients who are most likely to respond to immunotherapy remains a clinical challenge. Here, we discuss immune escape mechanisms exploited by cancer and present strategies for applying this knowledge to improving the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy.
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Immune escape
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To characterize the development and evolution of cellular immune responsiveness in individuals infected with the parasite Schistosoma mansoni, we studied fifteen patients with acute, subacute and chronic schistosomiasis. Lymphocytes from the three acutely infected patients responded vigorously to schistosome antigens in an in vitro blastogenic assay. By contrast, cells from nine chronically infected individuals were essentially unreactive to these same antigens. Patients infected for an intermediate period of time (9 months) generated responses between those of acute and chronic patients. The diminished responsiveness of chronically infected individuals was specific for schistosome antigens and did not extend to humoral immune responses. Following treatment of the infection with niridazole, these patients temporarily regained responsiveness to schistosome antigens. From these data we speculate that during the course of this parasitic helminth infection there develops a progressive and specific modulation of antigen recognition and proliferation by lymphocytes to schistosome antigens, and that such diminished immune reactivity may be important in maintaining the unique biological relationship which exists between a host and its parasites.
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Successful immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer depends on multiple facets of immune cell biology, including the proper migration of immune cells that are involved in mounting the antitumor immune response. In this chapter, we describe an array of approaches that can be employed to modify immune cell migration for the enhancement of cancer immunotherapy. We divide these approaches into three categories: ex vivo modification of immune cell migration, immunotherapy at the tumor site to enhance immune cell migration, and systemic application of drugs and biologicals.
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