Deletion of the N-terminus of SF2/ASF Permits RS-Domain-Independent Pre-mRNA Splicing
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Serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins are essential splicing factors with one or two RNA-recognition motifs (RRMs) and a C-terminal arginine- and serine-rich (RS) domain. SR proteins bind to exonic splicing enhancers via their RRM(s), and from this position are thought to promote splicing by antagonizing splicing silencers, recruiting other components of the splicing machinery through RS-RS domain interactions, and/or promoting RNA base-pairing through their RS domains. An RS domain tethered at an exonic splicing enhancer can function as a splicing activator, and RS domains play prominent roles in current models of SR protein functions. However, we previously reported that the RS domain of the SR protein SF2/ASF is dispensable for in vitro splicing of some pre-mRNAs. We have now extended these findings via the identification of a short inhibitory domain at the SF2/ASF N-terminus; deletion of this segment permits splicing in the absence of this SR protein's RS domain of an IgM pre-mRNA substrate previously classified as RS-domain-dependent. Deletion of the N-terminal inhibitory domain increases the splicing activity of SF2/ASF lacking its RS domain, and enhances its ability to bind pre-mRNA. Splicing of the IgM pre-mRNA in S100 complementation with SF2/ASF lacking its RS domain still requires an exonic splicing enhancer, suggesting that an SR protein RS domain is not always required for ESE-dependent splicing activation. Our data provide additional evidence that the SF2/ASF RS domain is not strictly required for constitutive splicing in vitro, contrary to prevailing models for how the domains of SR proteins function to promote splicing.Keywords:
SR protein
Exonic splicing enhancer
Protein splicing
Splicing factor
Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpesvirus (KSHV) ORF57 is a multifunctional post-transcriptional regulator essential for viral gene expression during KSHV lytic infection. ORF57 requires interactions with various cellular proteins for its function. Here, we identified serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 3 (SRSF3, formerly known as SRp20) as a cellular cofactor involved in ORF57-mediated splicing of KSHV K8β RNA. In the absence of ORF57, SRSF3 binds to a suboptimal K8β intron and inhibits K8β splicing. Knockdown of SRSF3 promotes K8β splicing, mimicking the effect of ORF57. The N-terminal half of ORF57 binds to the RNA recognition motif of SRSF3, which prevents SRSF3 from associating with the K8β intron RNA and therefore attenuates the suppressive effect of SRSF3 on K8β splicing. ORF57 also promotes splicing of heterologous non-KSHV transcripts that are negatively regulated by SRSF3, indicating that the effect of ORF57 on SRSF3 activity is independent of RNA target. SPEN proteins, previously identified as ORF57-interacting partners, suppress ORF57 splicing activity by displacing ORF57 from SRSF3–RNA complexes. In summary, we have identified modulation of SRSF3 activity as the molecular mechanism by which ORF57 promotes RNA splicing.
Splicing factor
SR protein
Exonic splicing enhancer
Protein splicing
Minigene
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The Fe(II) and 2-oxoglutarate dependent oxygenase Jmjd6 has been shown to hydroxylate lysine residues in the essential splice factor U2 auxiliary factor 65 kDa subunit (U2AF65) and to act as a modulator of alternative splicing. We describe further evidence for the role of Jmjd6 in the regulation of pre-mRNA processing including interactions of Jmjd6 with multiple arginine–serine-rich (RS)-domains of SR- and SR-related proteins including U2AF65, Luc7-like protein 3 (Luc7L3), SRSF11 and Acinus S′, but not with the bona fide RS-domain of SRSF1. The identified Jmjd6 target proteins are involved in different mRNA processing steps and play roles in exon dependent alternative splicing and exon definition. Moreover, we show that Jmjd6 modifies splicing of a constitutive splice reporter, binds RNA derived from the reporter plasmid and punctually co-localises with nascent RNA. We propose that Jmjd6 exerts its splice modulatory function by interacting with specific SR-related proteins during splicing in a RNA dependent manner.
SR protein
Protein splicing
Splicing factor
Exonic splicing enhancer
Minigene
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The SR family of proteins plays important regulatory roles in the control of alternative splicing in a wide range of organisms. These factors affect splicing through both positive and negative controls of splice site recognition by pre-spliceosomal factors. Recent studies indicate that the Drosophila SR factor Transformer 2 (Tra2) activates and represses splicing through distinct and separable effector regions of the protein. While the interactions of its Arg-Ser-rich activator region have been well studied, cofactors involved in splicing repression have yet to be found. Here we use a luciferase-based splicing reporter assay to screen for novel proteins necessary for Tra2-dependent repression of splicing. This approach identified Half pint, also known as Puf68, as a co-repressor required for Tra2-mediated autoregulation of the M1 intron. In vivo, Half pint is required for Tra2-dependent repression of M1 splicing but is not necessary for Tra2-dependent activation of doublesex splicing. Further experiments indicate that the effect of Hfp is sequence-specific and that it associates with these target transcripts in cells. Importantly, known M1 splicing regulatory elements are sufficient to sensitize a heterologous intron to Hfp regulation. Two alternative proteins deriving from Hfp transcripts, Hfp68, and Hfp58, were found to be expressed in vivo but differed dramatically in their effect on M1 splicing. Comparison of the cellular localization of these forms in S2 cells revealed that Hfp68 is predominantly localized to the nucleus while Hfp58 is distributed across both the nucleus and cytoplasm. This accords with their observed effects on splicing and suggests that differential compartmentalization may contribute to the specificity of these isoforms. Together, these studies reveal a function for Half pint in splicing repression and demonstrate it to be specifically required for Tra2-dependent intron inclusion.
Doublesex
Minigene
Splicing factor
SR protein
Exonic splicing enhancer
Protein splicing
Spliceosome
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The SR proteins constitute a family of splicing factors, highly conserved in metazoans, that contain one or two amino-terminal RNA-binding domains (RBDs) and a region enriched in arginine/serine repeats (RS domain) at the carboxyl terminus. Previous studies have shown that SR proteins possess distinct RNA-binding specificities that likely contribute to their unique functions, but it is unclear whether RS domains have specific roles in vivo. Here, we used a genetic system developed in the chicken B cell line DT40 to address this question. Expression of chimeric proteins generated by fusion of the RS domains of heterologous SR proteins, or a human TRA-2 protein, with the RBDs of ASF/SF2 allowed cell growth following genetic inactivation of endogenous ASF/SF2, indicating that RS domains are interchangeable for all functions required to maintain cell viability. However, a chimera containing the RS domain from a related splicing factor, U2AF 65 , could not rescue viability and was inactive in in vitro splicing assays, suggesting that this domain performs a distinct function. We also used the DT40 system to show that depletion of ASF/SF2 affects splicing of specific transcripts in vivo. Although splicing of several simple constitutive introns was not significantly affected, the alternative splicing patterns of two model pre-mRNAs switched in a manner consistent with predictions from previous studies. Unexpectedly, ASF/SF2 depletion resulted in a substantial increase in splicing of an HIV-1 tat pre-mRNA substrate, indicating that ASF/SF2 can repress tat splicing in vivo. These results provide the first demonstration that an SR protein can influence splicing of specific pre-mRNAs in vivo.
SR protein
Protein splicing
Splicing factor
Exonic splicing enhancer
Minigene
Heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particle
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SR protein
Splicing factor
Protein splicing
Exonic splicing enhancer
Spliceosome
Heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particle
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Q Sun, A Mayeda, R K Hampson, A R Krainer, and F M Rottman Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-4960.
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Exonic splicing enhancer
Minigene
SR protein
Protein splicing
Precursor mRNA
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Serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins are essential splicing factors with one or two RNA-recognition motifs (RRMs) and a C-terminal arginine- and serine-rich (RS) domain. SR proteins bind to exonic splicing enhancers via their RRM(s), and from this position are thought to promote splicing by antagonizing splicing silencers, recruiting other components of the splicing machinery through RS-RS domain interactions, and/or promoting RNA base-pairing through their RS domains. An RS domain tethered at an exonic splicing enhancer can function as a splicing activator, and RS domains play prominent roles in current models of SR protein functions. However, we previously reported that the RS domain of the SR protein SF2/ASF is dispensable for in vitro splicing of some pre-mRNAs. We have now extended these findings via the identification of a short inhibitory domain at the SF2/ASF N-terminus; deletion of this segment permits splicing in the absence of this SR protein's RS domain of an IgM pre-mRNA substrate previously classified as RS-domain-dependent. Deletion of the N-terminal inhibitory domain increases the splicing activity of SF2/ASF lacking its RS domain, and enhances its ability to bind pre-mRNA. Splicing of the IgM pre-mRNA in S100 complementation with SF2/ASF lacking its RS domain still requires an exonic splicing enhancer, suggesting that an SR protein RS domain is not always required for ESE-dependent splicing activation. Our data provide additional evidence that the SF2/ASF RS domain is not strictly required for constitutive splicing in vitro, contrary to prevailing models for how the domains of SR proteins function to promote splicing.
SR protein
Exonic splicing enhancer
Protein splicing
Splicing factor
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Citations (28)
The human splicing factor ASF/SF2 (alternative splicing factor/splicing factor 2) is modular in structure with two RNA-binding domains (RBD1 and RBD2) and a C-terminal domain rich in arginine-serine dipeptide repeats. ASF/SF2 is an essential splicing factor that also functions as an important regulator of alternative splicing. In adenovirus E1A (early region 1A) alternative pre-mRNA splicing, ASF/SF2 functions as a strong inducer of proximal 5'-splice-site selection, both in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we tested the functional role of individual domains of ASF/SF2 in alternative splicing in vitro. We show that ASF/SF2-RBD2 is the critical domain controlling E1A alternative splicing. In fact, RBD2 alone is sufficient to mimic the activity of the full-length ASF/SF2 protein as an inducer of proximal 5'-splice-site selection in vitro. The RBD2 domain induces a switch to E1A-proximal 5'-splice-site usage by repressing distal 12 S splicing and simultaneously stimulates proximal 13 S splicing. In contrast, the ASF/SF2-RBD1 domain has a more general splicing enhancer phenotype and appears to stimulate preferentially cap-proximal 5'-splice-site selection. Furthermore, the SWQDLKD motif, which is conserved in all SR proteins (serine/arginine-rich proteins) containing two RBDs, and the ribonucleoprotein-1-type RNA recognition motif were both found to be necessary for the alternative splice-site-switching activity of ASF/SF2. The RNP-1 motif was necessary for efficient RNA binding, whereas the SWQDLKD motif most probably contributes by functioning as a surface-mediating critical protein-protein contact during spliceosome assembly.
SR protein
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Exonic splicing enhancer
Protein splicing
Minigene
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Exonic splicing enhancers (ESEs) activate pre-mRNA splicing by promoting the use of the flanking splice sites. They are recognized by members of the serine/arginine-rich (SR) family of proteins, such as splicing factor 2/alternative splicing factor (SF2/ASF), which recruit basal splicing factors to form the initial complexes during spliceosome assembly. The in vitro splicing kinetics of an ESE-dependent IgM pre-mRNA suggested that an SF2/ASF-specific ESE has additional functions later in the splicing reaction, after the completion of the first catalytic step. A bimolecular exon ligation assay, which physically uncouples the first and second catalytic steps of splicing in a trans-splicing reaction, was adapted to test the function of the ESE after the first step. A 3′ exon containing the SF2/ASF-specific ESE underwent bimolecular exon ligation, whereas 3′ exons without the ESE or with control sequences did not. The ESE-dependent trans-splicing reaction occurred after inactivation of U1 or U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles, compatible with a functional assay for events after the first step of splicing. The ESE-dependent step appears to take place before the ATP-independent part of the second catalytic step. Bimolecular exon ligation also occurred in an S100 cytosolic extract, requiring both the SF2/ASF-dependent ESE and complementation with SF2/ASF. These data suggest that some ESEs can act late in the splicing reaction, together with appropriate SR proteins, to enhance the second catalytic step of splicing.
Exonic splicing enhancer
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Splicing factor
SR protein
Minigene
Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein
Spliceosome
Polypyrimidine tract
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SR protein
Protein splicing
Exonic splicing enhancer
Splicing factor
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Citations (13)