What constitutes a level of analysis

Purpose – This paper aims to respond to Yammarino's article in this issue on level of analysis and the US Constitution.Design/methodology/approach – This paper expands on two concepts central to levels of analysis: entity and causal process. Then additional alternative ways of conceptualizing, analyzing, and representing multi‐level organizations – beyond the organization chart – are described. A rationale for America's use of the Electoral College is sought.Findings – The paper reveals connections among traditional notions of hierarchy (including the traditional organization chart) and contemporary social network concepts.Practical implications – Leaders and other members of social and organizational systems should be mindful of their mental representations of hierarchy, of organizational or social groupings (e.g., US States), and of social distance. These representations can influence behaviors and perceptions, including perceived fairness of procedures.Originality/value – The paper presents interesting...