Electrochemical DNA biosensors and sensing platforms for the detection and quantification of genetically modified soybean in food and feed

In the nearly two decades since they were first commercialized, genetically engineered crops have gained ground on their conventional counterparts, reaching nearly 180 million hectares worldwide in 2015. The technology has bestowed most of its benefits on enhancing crop productivity with two main traits currently dominating the market: insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are conventionally obtained through the introduction of foreign DNA fragments into the host genome via genetically engineering techniques. The modified organism, i.e. plant, will then be able to express new protein(s) confering it with the novel, desired trait(s), e.g. herbicide tolerance. Plants such as maize and soybean have been modified to withstand weed-killing chemicals or resist insect pests to increase yields and improve profits to farmers. Despite their rapid and vast adoption by farmers worldwide, GMOs have generated heated debates, especially in European countries, driven mostly by consumers concerned about safety of transgenic foods and about the potential impact of their release into the environment. The European Union (EU) has established the mandatory labeling of GMOs in food and feed above a certain threshold (0.9%, based on the ingredient). In the list of ingredients the term "genetically modified" must appear (next to the ingredient in question). Below such level, labeling is not mandatory provided that the presence of GM material is proven to be accidental or technically unavoidable. The need to monitor GMOs and to verify compliance with EU legislation has driven the development of analytical methods able to detect and quantify GMOs in crops, and in food and feed products...