Ion implantation techniques : lectures given at the Ion Implantation School, in connection with the Fourth International Conference on Ion Implantation: Equipment and Techniques, Berchtesgaden, Fed. Rep. of Germany, September 13-15, 1982

I Machine Aspects of Ion Implantation.- Ion Implantation System Concepts.- 1. Implanter Concepts.- 1.1 Post-Analysis.- 1.2 Pre-Analysis.- 1.3 Post-Analysis with Post-Acceleration.- 2. Criteria for the Ideal Semiconductor-Manufacturing Implanter.- 3. Low-Current and Medium-Current Implanter Concepts.- 4. High-Current Implanter Concepts.- 5. System-Limiting Aspects H.- 5.1 Throughput.- 5.2 Wafer Heating.- 5.3 Energy Range.- 5.4 Wafer Size and Wafer Tilting.- 5.5 Charge-up Phenomena.- 5.6 Contamination.- 6. Human Engineering.- 6.1 Operation of an Implanter.- 6.2 Automatic Implantation Control.- 6.3 Safety.- References.- Ion Sources.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Ion Implantation Requirements from the Ion Source.- 3. The Principle of Operation of an Ion Source.- 3.1 The Cathode.- 3.2 The Anode.- 3.3 The Extraction Aperture.- 3.4 The Magnetic Field.- 3.5 The Plasma.- 3.6 The Source Feed System.- 4. Beam Extraction.- 5. Beam Formation.- 6. Beam Quality.- 7. Beam Content.- 8. Ion Source Selection.- 8.1 Low-Current Machines.- 8.2 Medium-Current Machines.- 8.3 High-Current Machines.- 8.4 Surface Treatment Machines.- 9. Types of Arc Discharge Source.- 9.1 Calutron Sources.- 9.2 Magnetron Ion Sources.- 9.3 Penning Ion Source.- 9.4 Plasmatron Ion Sources.- 9.5 Hollow Cathode Sources.- 9.6 Sputtering Sources.- 9.7 Sources for the Surface Treatment of Metals.- 9.8 Other Sources.- 10. Sources Not Utilising an Arc Discharge.- 10.1 Surface Ionisation Sources.- 10.2 Molten Metal Field Emission Ion Sources.- 11. Operational Characteristics of Arc Discharge Sources.- 11.1 Arc Voltage.- 11.2 Arc Current.- 11.3 Magnetic Field Strength.- 11.4 Arc Chamber Pressure.- 11.5 Feed Material.- 11.6 Temperature.- 11.7 Source Condition.- 11.8 Extraction Voltage.- 12. Ion Source Feed Materials.- 12.1 Gaseous Feed Materials.- 12.2 Low Vapour Pressure Materials.- 12.3 Very Low Vapour Pressure Materials.- 12.4 Chemical Synthesis.- 12.5 Feed Materials.- 13. Materials of Construction.- 13.1 Arc Chamber Materials.- 13.2 Cathode Materials.- 13.3 Insulator Materials.- 13.4 Magnetic Materials.- 13.5 Electrical Conductors.- 13.6 Coating Materials.- 14. Ion Sources in Commercial Ion Implanters.- 14.1 Sources for Low-Current Machines.- 14.2 Medium-Current Machines.- 14.3 High-Current Machines.- 15. Conclusions.- References.- Faraday Cup Designs for Ion Implantation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Dose Control by Current Measurement.- 2.1 Assumptions.- 2.2 Discrepancies.- 3. Limitations in Dose Measurements with Faraday Cups.- 3.1 Ion Beam Space-Charge Effects.- 3.2 Secondary and Tertiary Particle Emissions in the Faraday Cup...- 3.3 Target Area Effects.- 3.4 Electrical Errors.- 4. Design Principles for Faraday Cups.- 5. Faraday Cup Design for Dose Measurement for Scanned Beams.- 5.1 Beam Space Charge and Secondary Particle Collection.- 5.2 Implant Area.- 5.3 Electrical Considerations.- 6. Faraday Cup Design for Dose Measurement for Scanned Targets.- 6.1 Beam Space Charge, Surface Neutralization and Secondary Particle Collection.- 6.2 Implant Area.- 6.3 Electrical Considerations.- 7. In Situ Monitoring of Dose Uniformity.- 7.1 Uniformity Control for Scanned Beams.- 7.2 Uniformity Control for Scanned Targets.- 8. Hybrid Systems.- 9. Summary.- References.- Safety and Ion Implanters.- 1. Radiation.- 1.1 Mechanisms of X-Ray Production.- 1.2 X-Ray Production Efficiency.- 1.3 Generation of the Reverse Electron Flow Responsible for X-Ray Production.- 1.4 Mechanisms of X-Ray Absorption.- 1.5 Radiation Units.- 1.6 Example of a Radiation-Level Calculation.- 2. Poisonous Materials.- 3. High Voltage.- 4. Mechanical Hazards.- 5. Fire, Flooding, Earthquake.- 5.1 Fire.- 5.2 Flooding.- 5.3 Earthquake.- References.- II Ion Ranges in Solids.- The Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Review of Some Stopping and Range Tables.- 2.1 Stopping Power Tables.- 2.2 Range Tables.- 3. Stopping Powers for Ions in Solids.- 3.1 Nuclear Stopping Powers.- 3.2 The Electronic Stopping of Ions in Solids.- 3.3 Empirical Ion Stopping Powers.- References.- The Calculation of Ion Ranges in Solids with Analytic Solutions.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Basic Ideas of the Model.- 2.1 Directional Spread of Ion Motion During the Slowing-Down Process.- 2.2 Connection Between Angular Spread Parameter t and Energy Loss.- 2.3 Calculation of the Mean Projected Range.- 3. Application of the Model.- 3.1 Heavy-Ion Ranges as an Example of Possible Analytic Treatment.- 3.2 Differential Equation and Universal Algorithm for Projected Ranges.- 3.3 Universal Analytic Approximation for Projected Ranges.- 4. Projected Ranges in Compound Targets.- 5. Higher Terms and Precision.- 6. Appendix.- 6.1 Numerical Evaluation of Projected Ranges on Programmable.- Pocket Calculators (PRAL).- 6.2 Numerical Evaluation of Projected Ranges on Computers (DIMUS) 169 References.- Range Distributions.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Gaussian Profiles I?.- 3. Pearson Distributions.- 4. Other Distributions.- 5. Two-Layer Targets.- 6. Implantation and Sputtering.- 7. Lateral Spread.- 8. Appendix: Range Program.- References.- III Measuring Techniques and Annealing.- Electrical Measuring Techniques.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Background.- 2.1 Why Post-Implantation Dosimetry.- 2.2 Incident and Retained Dose.- 2.3 Absolute and Relative Dose Measurement.- 2.4 Sample Contamination.- 2.5 Post-Implantation Annealing.- 2.6 Basic Assumptions.- 3. Measurement Techniques.- 3.1 Resistance Measurements.- 3.2 Capacitance Voltage.- 3.3 Device Parameters.- 3.4 Depth Profiles.- 4. Limitations of Electrical Measurements.- 5. Standards Exercises.- References.- Wafer Mapping Techniques for Characterization of Ion Implantation Processing.- 1. Introduction.- 2. High-Dose Characterization: Sheet Resistance Measurements.- 2.1 The van der Pauw Resistor.- 2.2 The Four-Point Probe.- 3. Sheet Resistance Wafer Mapping.- 3.1 Performance Norms for Dose Accuracy and Uniformity.- 3.2 Implanter Diagnostics.- 3.3 Effects of Annealing Conditions.- 3.4 Wafer Heating During Implantation.- 4. Low-Dose Characterization.- 4.1 Device Parameters.- 4.2 High-Frequency Capacitance Technique.- 5. Summary.- References.- Non-Electrical Measuring Techniques.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Structure of Implantation-Related Analytical Problems.- 3. Review of Measurement Techniques: Impurity Profiling.- 3.1 Abrasive Techniques.- 3.2 Non-Destructive Methods.- 4. Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS).- 4.1 Sputtering and Secondary Ionization.- 4.2 Experimental Techniques.- 5. Rutherford Backscattering (RBS).- 5.1 Concepts of RBS.- 5.2 Experimental Technique.- 6. Damage Evaluation by Channeling Techniques.- 6.1 Channeling of Energetic Light Ions.- 6.2 Channeling Spectra and Lattice Disorder.- 6.3 Lattice Location.- References.- Annealing and Residual Damage.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Characterization of Damage and Defects.- 3. Primary Implantation Damage.- 4. Thermal Annealing.- 5. Residual Defects.- 6. Effects of Residual Defects.- References.- IV Appendix: Modern Ion Implantation Equipment TM.- Evolution and Performance of the Nova NV-10 Predep(TM) Implanter.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Performance Specifications.- 3. Dose Control.- 4. Throughput.- 4.1 Implant Time.- 4.2 The Wafer Handling Sequence Between Implants.- 4.3 Throughput Values.- 5. Uptime.- 6. Beam Current and Source Performance.- 7. Energy.- 8. Wafer Cooling.- 8.1 Uncooled Disks.- 8.2 Radiation-Enhanced Cooling.- 3.3 2-Point Clamp Technique.- 8.4 Full-Ring Centrifugal Clamp.- 9. Preventive Maintenance.- 10. Process Control (Datalock(TM)).- 11. Neutral Beams.- 11.1 Dose Error.- 11.2 Dose Non-uniformity.- 11.3 Depth Profile Errors.- 11.4 Secondary Particle Effects.- 12. Contamination.- 13. Wafer Handling.- 14. Summary.- References.- Ion Implantation Equipment from Veeco.- 1. Introduction.- 2. A Versatile Ion Implantation System.- 3. A High-Production Ion Implantation System.- 4. Ion Implanter for GaAs - Device Development and Production.- The Series III A and IIIX Ion Implanters.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Series III Machine.- 3. The Series IIIA Machine.- 4. The Series IIIX Machine.- 5. The Electron Flood Gun.- 6. The Process Verification System.- 7. Specifications.- 7.1 IIIA.- 7.2 IIIX.- References.- Standard High-Voltage Power Supplies for Ion Implantation.- The IONMICROPROBE A-DIDA 3000-30 for Dopant Depth Profiling and Impurity Bulk Analysis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Some Features of the IONMICROPROBE A-DIDA 3000-30.- 3. Some IONMICROPROBE A-DIDA 3000-30 Applications.- References.- List of Contributors.