The road to nuclear receptors of thyroid hormone.

Abstract Background Early studies on the mechanism of action of thyroid hormone (TH) measured changes in enzyme activities following the addition of l -thyroxine (T 4 ) and 3, 3′, 5-triiodothyronine (T 3 ) to tissue extracts and purified enzymes. Scope of review As techniques for isolation of mitochondria, ribosomes, nuclei and chromatin, were increasingly refined, it became possible to study complex cellular processes, such as oxidative phosphorylation, protein synthesis, transcription and chromosomal structure. Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and direct action on protein synthesis as mechanisms of action of TH, proposed in the 1950s and 1960s, were found to be untenable as mechanisms of physiological action because of inappropriate experimental conditions. Major conclusions Several findings in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly 1) that near-physiological doses of T 3 stimulated transcription measured in vivo or in nuclei isolated from tissues of rats and frog tadpoles, 2) the inhibition of hormone action by inhibitors of transcription and 3) the rapid and almost identical kinetics of accumulation of labelled hormone and RNA synthesis in target cell nuclei, pointed to the cell nucleus as a major site of its action. The application of technologies of recombinant DNA, gene cloning and DNA sequencing in the mid-1980s allowed the identification and understanding of the structure and function of nuclear receptors of TH. General significance This review traces the road leading to the nuclear receptors of thyroid hormone, thus explaining how the hormone influences gene expression. It also illustrates the importance of how new concepts originate from the progression of technological innovations. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Thyroid hormone signalling.