This paper examined the psychometric properties of intelligence tests for preschoolers, including standardization, reliability, test floors, item gradients, and validity. The WPPSI-R, DAS, S-B:IV, WJ-R COG, and BSID-IL were reviewed. The psychometric properties of these instruments are weakest at the lower end of the preschool age range (i.e., 2-6 to 3-6), a finding that is consistent with previous research. The WJ-R COG and BSID-II are among the better instruments for use with very young children because they were rated as technically adequate across most criteria. The psychometric properties were strongest for most instruments at the middle (i.e., 3-6 to 4-6) and upper (i.e., 4-6 to 5-6) levels of the preschool age range. Because all intelligence tests have different strengths and limitations, the technical characteristics of these tests should be considered carefully before one selects an instrument for use with preschoolers. Future research should examine the role of intelligence within a framework of developing abilities in young children, so that its relevance in early educational interventions, as well as diagnosis and classification of preschoolers, can be realized.
In this commentary, we reviewed two clinical validation studies on the Wechsler Scales conducted by Weiss and colleagues. These researchers used a rigorous within-battery model-fitting approach that demonstrated the factorial invariance of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) across populations. Beyond the important finding of invariance across populations, however, these studies did not provide much additional clarification about exactly what is and what is not measured by the WISC-IV and WAIS-IV vis-à-vis an overarching empirically validated theory of the structure of cognitive abilities. To that end, we argued that a better understanding of the cognitive constructs (both broad and narrow) measured by the Wechsler scales or invariance across selection of variables is necessary and will require theory-driven joint or cross-battery confirmatory factor analysis. Recommendations for conducting this type of research were offered within the context of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities.
Lexical fluency tests are frequently used in clinical practice to assess language and executive function. As part of the Spanish multicenter normative studies (NEURONORMA project), we provide age- and education-adjusted norms for three semantic fluency tasks (animals, fruit and vegetables, and kitchen tools), three formal lexical tasks (words beginning with P, M, and R), and three excluded letter fluency tasks (excluded A, E, and S). The sample consists of 346 participants who are cognitively normal, community dwelling, and ranging in age from 50 to 94 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into education-adjusted scaled scores by applying regression-based adjustments. The current norms should provide clinically useful data for evaluating elderly Spanish people. These data may also be of considerable use for comparisons with other international normative studies. Finally, these norms should help improve the interpretation of verbal fluency tasks and allow for greater diagnostic accuracy.
Foreword xiii Series Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix One Overview of Specific Learning Disabilities 1 Marlene Sotelo-Dynega, Dawn P. Flanagan, and Vincent C. Alfonso Two How SLD Manifests in Reading 21 Steven Feifer Three How SLD Manifests in Mathematics 43 David C. Geary, Mary K. Hoard, and Drew H. Bailey Four How SLD Manifests in Writing 65 Nancy Mather and Barbara J. Wendling Five How SLD Manifests in Oral Expression and Listening Comprehension 89 Elisabeth H. Wiig Six A Response to Intervention (RTI) Approach to SLD Identification 115 Jack M. Fletcher, Amy E. Barth, and Karla K. Stuebing Seven The Discrepancy/Consistency Approach to SLD Identification Using the PASS Theory 145 Jack A. Naglieri Eight RTI and Cognitive Hypothesis Testing for Identification and Intervention of Specific Learning Disabilities: The Best of Both Worlds 173 James B. Hale, Kirby L. Wycoff, and Catherine A. Fiorello Nine Evidence-Based Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Reading Disabilities With and Without Comorbidities in Oral Language, Writing, and Math: Prevention, Problem-Solving Consultation, and Specialized Instruction 203 Virginia W. Berninger Ten A CHC-based Operational Definition of SLD: Integrating Multiple Data Sources and Multiple Data-Gathering Methods 233 Dawn P. Flanagan, Vincent C. Alfonso, and Jennifer T. Mascolo Eleven Separating Cultural and Linguistic Differences (CLD) From Specific Learning Disability (SLD) in the Evaluation of Diverse Students: Difference or Disorder? 299 Samuel O. Ortiz References 327 Annotated Bibliography 371 About the Editors 375 About the Contributors 377 Author Index 379 Subject Index 397
Series Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv One Overview 1 Two How to Organize a Cross-Battery Assessment Using Cognitive, Achievement, and Neuropsychological Batteries 45 Three How to Interpret Test Data 121 Four Cross-Battery Assessment for SLD Identification: The Dual Discrepancy/Consistency Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses in the Context of an Operational Definition 227 Five Cross-Battery Assessment of Individuals From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds 287 Six Strengths and Weaknesses of the Cross-Battery Assessment Approach 351 Seven Cross-Battery Assessment Case Report 365 Appendix A CHC Narrow Ability Definitions and Task Examples 389 Appendix B CHC Broad and Narrow Ability Classification Tables for Tests Published Between 2001 and 2012 399 Appendix C Descriptions of Cognitive, Achievement, and Neuropsychological Subtests by CHC Domain 417 Appendix D Critical Values for Statistical Significance and Base Rate for Composites on Comprehensive Cognitive and Achievement Batteries 425 Appendix E Variation in Task Demands and Task Characteristics of Subtests on Cognitive and Neuropsychological Batteries 431 Marlene Sotelo-Dynega and Tara Cuskley Appendix F Variation in Task Demands and Task Characteristics of Subtests on Achievement Batteries by IDEA Academic Area 439 Jennifer T. Mascolo Appendix G Neuropsychological Domain Classifications 445 Appendix H Understanding and Using the XBA PSW-A v1.0 Software Program Tab by Tab 457 Appendix I Cognitive and Neuropsychological Battery-Specific Culture-Language Matrices 485 Appendix J Cross-Battery Assessment Case Reports 503 Jim Hanson, John Garruto, and Karen Apgar Appendix K Eugene, Oregon, School District Integrated Model for Specific Learning Disability Identification 505 Appendix L Summary of the Expert Consensus Study for Determining CHC Broad and Narrow Ability Classifications for Subtests New to This Edition 517 Appendix M Criteria Used in XBA DMIA v2.0 for Follow-Up on a Two-Subtest Composite 527 Author Index 533 Subject Index 537 About the Authors 553 About the CD 555 The CD-ROM contains the full versions of all Appendices three software programs that analyze data (Cross-Battery Assessment Data Management and Interpretive Assistant, Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses Analyzer, and Culture-Language Interpretive Matrix) and a form (Evaluation and Consideration of Exclusionary Factors for SLD Identification).
As part of the Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA project), we provide age- and education-adjusted norms for the following instruments: verbal span (digits), visuospatial span (Corsi's test), letter–number sequencing (WAIS-III), trail making test, and symbol digit modalities test. The sample consists of 354 participants who are cognitively normal, community-dwelling, and age ranging from 50 to 90 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into education-adjusted scaled scores by applying regression-based adjustments. The current norms should provide clinically useful data for evaluating elderly Spanish people. These data may be of considerable use for comparisons with other normative studies. Limitations of these normative data are mainly related to the techniques of recruitment and stratification employed.
