Harboring of Plasmodium Falciparum and Plasmodium Ovale Wallikeri Multiple Species Associated with Symptomatic Malaria in Endemic Population
Juma A. JacklineOliver J. WatsonDennis W. JumaBenjamin OpotGladys ChemworMary MutahiRaphael OkothEdwin W. MwakioRedemptah A. YedahCharles O. OkelloAgnes C. CheruiyotDuke OmaribaLiliana DayoHellen OgollahGladys BiwottCharles AdegaFredrick OluochVincent OmondiGeorge OtienoEdwin KamauBen AndagaluPeter SifunaAmanda L. RothSammy KhagayiEric GargesBernhards OgutuHoseah M. Akala
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Despite the increased use and worldwide distribution of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) that distinguish between Plasmodium falciparum and non-falciparum species, little is known about their performance detecting Plasmodium knowlesi (Pk), Plasmodium malariae (Pm), and Plasmodium ovale (Po). This review seeks to analyze the results of published studies evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of malaria RDTs in detecting Pk, Pm, and Po monoinfections.MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, and CENTRAL databases were systematically searched to identify studies that reported the performance of RDTs in detecting Pk, Pm, and Po monoinfections.Among 40 studies included in the review, 3 reported on Pk, 8 on Pm, 5 on Po, 1 on Pk and Pm, and 23 on Pm and Po infections. In the meta-analysis, estimates of sensitivities of RDTs in detecting Pk infections ranged 2%-48%. Test performances for Pm and Po infections were less accurate and highly heterogeneous, mainly because of the small number of samples tested.Limited data available suggest that malaria RDTs show suboptimal performance for detecting Pk, Pm, and Po infections. New improved RDTs and appropriately designed cross-sectional studies to demonstrate the usefulness of RDTs in the detection of neglected Plasmodium species are urgently needed.
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Malaria is a mosquito-borne infection caused by the Plasmodium parasite, which infects a person carrying the parasite through mosquito bites or blood transfusions. It is the world's leading parasitic disease. There are four species of Plasmodium in the human body, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale. More than 100 countries and regions are reported to be affected by malaria to varying degrees. Malaria has a high incidence in Zambia, which seriously endangers people's life and health, and increases the social and economic burden of the affected communities to a certain extent. In addition, the number of malaria deaths remains high, the number of malaria cases has even risen, and the eradication of malaria has stagnated. Therefore, timely and accurate diagnosis is of great significance to effectively prevent malaria, control its spread, and give patients early treatment. This article describes the current progress and challenges of malaria elimination in Zambia, and Outlines current malaria elimination strategies and key interventions.
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The threat of increased transmission of non-knowlesi zoonotic malaria in humans: a systematic review
Abstract Of the 5 human malarial parasites, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are the most prevalent species globally, while Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri are less prevalent and typically occur as mixed-infections. Plasmodium knowlesi , previously considered a non-human primate (NHP) infecting species, is now a cause of human malaria in Malaysia. The other NHP Plasmodium species, Plasmodium cynomolgi , Plasmodium brasilianum , Plasmodium inui , Plasmodium simium , Plasmodium coatneyi and Plasmodium fieldi cause malaria in primates, which are mainly reported in southeast Asia and South America. The non- knowlesi NHP Plasmodium species also emerged and were found to cross-transmit from their natural hosts (NHP) – to human hosts in natural settings. Here we have reviewed and collated data from the literature on the NHPs-to-human-transmitting non-knowlesi Plasmodium species. It was observed that the natural transmission of these NHP parasites to humans had been reported from 2010 onwards. This study shows that: (1) the majority of the non- knowlesi NHP Plasmodium mixed species infecting human cases were from Yala province of Thailand; (2) mono/mixed P. cynomolgi infections with other human-infecting Plasmodium species were prevalent in Malaysia and Thailand and (3) P. brasilianum and P. simium were found in Central and South America.
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The chapter is dedicated to malaria, plasmodium, their ecology, evolution, life cycle, and host interaction. Authors divided the chapter into different subheadings to easily elucidate several aspects of the parasite and disease, which also include disease model evolution of zoonotic malaria of past and present, rise and fall of malaria drugs due to resistant plasmodium strains, and also situations of urban malaria. This may be useful for the reader as the authors also included many scientific anecdotes regarding the history of malaria, plasmodium, and human society.
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It now appears that Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium inui, and Plasmodium schwetzi are true zoonoses, although the latter, as Plasmodium ovale, may be an anthroponosis as well. Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium rodhaini are generally accepted as being synonymous; if this is true, and it probably is, then this African quartan parasite is either one, i.e., a zoonosis or an anthroponosis, depending on which group of primates gave it origin. Certain African-Asian forms, Plasmodium gonderi for example, appear to be neither. The Central and South American primate malarias pose a different problem, for it is held that these malarias appeared only after 1492 when man, carrying P. malariae and Plasmodium vivax invaded this area from Europe. Consequently, each infection appeared in the monkeys as an anthroponosis. If this is true, synonymy is inevitable. If, on the other hand, Plasmodium brasilianum is a valid species, it acts as a zoonosis. There is reasonable doubt that Plasmodium simium acts in the same capacity.
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Unrecognized malaria in nonendemic regions can have high morbidity and mortality. Distinct patient populations such as travelers, immigrants, and those who visit friends and relatives abroad are at elevated risk for malarial infection. The charts of 63 patients in Dayton, Ohio, for whom malaria smears were ordered from 1999 through 2007 were reviewed. Ten of the 63 patients tested positive for malaria: 5 patients had Plasmodium falciparum, 3 with Plasmodium vivax, and 1 case each of Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae. The trends among our malaria cases reflect those found nationally. In nonendemic US cities, malaria should be suspected when patients present with posttravel fever; or fever of unknown origin coupled with a background of recent travel or immigration.
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The entry of PCR-based techniques into malaria diagnostics has improved the sensitivity and specificity of the detection of Plasmodium infections. It has been shown that humans are regularly infected by at least six different Plasmodium species. The MC004 real-time PCR assay for malaria diagnosis is a novel single-tube assay that has been developed for the purpose of simultaneously detecting all Plasmodium species known to infect humans, and discrimination between Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, Plasmodium ovale curtisi, Plasmodium knowlesi (including differentiation of three strains) and Plasmodium cynomolgi (including differentiation of three strains). Detection and identification of Plasmodium species relies on molecular beacon probe-based melting curve analysis. In addition, this assay might be used to quantify the parasitaemia of at least P. falciparum by calculating the level of parasitaemia directly from the Cq-value.
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In the Report of the Surgeon General of the United States Army, for 1900, the writer (1) described a malaria plasmodium occurring in the blood of soldiers returning from the Philippine Islands and suffering from a fever presenting tertian paroxysms indistinguishable clinically from the paroxysms of fever caused by Plasmodium vivax, the tertian malaria plasmodium. The differences in morphology between this plasmodium and Plasmodium vivax led the writer to regard it either as a distinct variety of the latter plasmodium or as a strain of Plasmodium vivax that had acquired the peculiar morphological characteristics described through some unknown environmental condition. The writer did not give this plasmodium a name because of the uncertainty as to its exact zoological position and because it was believed that further observations would decide whether or not it was entitled to be regarded as a new variety or species of malaria plasmodium.
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