Amphetamine-like substances and synthetic cathinones in Portuguese wastewater influents: Enantiomeric profiling and role of suspended particulate matter
Ivan M. LangaAna R. RibeiroNuno RatolaVirgínia M. F. GonçalvesMaria Elizabeth TiritanCláudia Ribeiro
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Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) has been used worldwide to estimate drug consumption routinely. Even though WBE provides valuable data to support legal and health interventions associated to drug use, monitoring studies in Portuguese wastewaters are scarce. Hence, this work aimed to estimate the consumption of some conventional abuse and illicit drugs such as amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (MAMP), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and the synthetic cathinones buphedrone (BPD), butylone (BTL), 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC) and 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC), considering not only the liquid phase, but also the suspended particulate matter (SPM). Moreover, the enantiomeric profiling of the samples was studied, exploring for the first time the possible enantioselective sorption of these drugs onto SPM. For that, 24 h composite raw wastewaters were collected from a conventional wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Portugal. After extraction, the liquid phase and SPM extracts were derivatized with an enantiomerically pure reagent and then, analysed using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analytical method. The results showed a low and non-enantioselective adsorption to SPM at environmental relevant levels. Only (S)-AMP was detected in two SPM samples, whereas AMP, MAMP, MDMA, BPD, and 3,4-DMMC were detected in the liquid phase. AMP was the most frequently found drug with an estimated load up to 166.0 mg dayKeywords:
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This article assesses how Lutheran and other Reformation doctrines spread and were countered in the Portuguese seaborne empire. Portugal's inquisitorial and episcopal repression of ‘Lutherans’ was extended to Brazil and Asia, where it was supported by the Society of Jesus. The Portuguese empire's transcontinental connections favoured the emergence of interconnected histories, facilitating the circulation of books, engravings and beliefs and thus provided non-Portuguese people with links to the reformed world that spread amongst and disturbed the Portuguese living in India and Portuguese America. By opening up routes the Portuguese, paradoxically, functioned as vectors for other ways of interpreting Christianity.
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The emission and dispersion of particulate matter near urban roadways has become an issue of increasing concern because of the possible health risks to humans associated with the inhalation of small particulates. Despite the potential health risk, little is known about the concentration of particulates near urban roadways or the particulates emission rates of various vehicles. Particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers (microns), typically denoted PM sub 2.5, was studied. Data were collected along paved roads on the University of Washington campus. The results of the data collection and subsequent statistical analysis indicated, as expected, that urban buses are by far the major source of particulate emissions and that buses with low exhaust pipes generate higher concentrations of roadside fine particulate matter than buses with elevated exhausts. The findings suggest that the Environmental Protection Agency's procedure AP-42 for calculating resuspended particulate matter near urban roads is grossly inaccurate, producing values that are 9 to 20 times higher than observed fine particulate levels.
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Drugs that are metabolized to amphetamine or methamphetamine are potentially significant concerns in the interpretation of amphetamine-positive drug testing results. A number of different compounds have been reported to produce amphetamine in the urine of users. One of these compounds, fenproporex, has been shown to produce amphetamine. Previous reports indicate that the parent compound can be detected only for a few hours following administration, whereas the amphetamine can be detected for several days. Administration of fenproporex to five healthy volunteers resulted in amphetamine being detected in the urine of all subjects. Peak concentrations of amphetamine were detected at approximately 6–20 h postdose and ranged from approximately 1200 to 2100 ng/mL amphetamine. Amphetamine could be detected (>5 ng/mL) in the urine for up to 119 h. Analysis of the metabolically produced amphetamine showed the presence of both enantiomers, which can be helpful in the differentiation of some illicit amphetamine use from the use of this precursor drug. More significantly, all samples that contained amphetamine at a concentration of at least 500 ng/mL were shown to also contain measurable amounts of the parent compound.
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Drugs that are metabolized to amphetamine or methamphetamine are potentially of significant concern in the interpretation of positive drug-testing results for amphetamines. A number of different drugs have been reported to produce amphetamine in the urine of users. One of these compounds, fenproporex, has been shown to be metabolized to amphetamine, and previous reports indicated the parent compound could be detected at low levels for up to 48 h. Administration of fenproporex for seven days (one 10-mg dose per day) to five healthy volunteers resulted in amphetamine being detected in the urine of all subjects. Peak concentrations of amphetamine ranged from approximately 2850 to 4150 ng/mL. Amphetamine could be detected (> or = 5 ng/mL) in the urine for up to nearly 170 h after the last dose. Analysis of the metabolically produced amphetamine showed the presence of both enantiomers, which can be helpful in the differentiation of some illicit amphetamine use from the use of this precursor drug. In addition, evaluation of the enantiomeric composition of the metabolite (amphetamine) can be a valuable tool in the interpretation of time since last dose. More significantly, all samples that contained amphetamine at a concentration of > or = 500 ng/mL were shown to also contain detectable amounts of the parent compound.
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Utilization of fiber and shell as boiler fuel in palm oil mill industry generates particulate emission that need to be controlled before emitting to the environment. This study investigates the particulate mass size distribution of particulate matter sampled from palm oil mills having different boiler capacities. The particulate emission was performed at the stack following US EPA Method 17 and while the particulate size distribution was determined using particle size analyzer. Results showed that the total particulate mass concentration varied between 0.42 and 3.77 g/Nm3 (corrected at 7% O2). The emitted particulate was mainly found in the coarse particles, with 50% cumulative size distribution ranged from 21 to 38 µm. The particulate mass concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 of the total particulate emission was varied from 0.03 to 0.30 g/Nm3 and 0.37 to 0.73 g/Nm3, respectively. This contributes 0.8 to 71% and 13 to 95% of the total particulate mass concentration, respectively.
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A technique for the rapid estimation of amphetamine in human urine by means of gas chromatography has been devised in our laboratory. This method, which is both sensitive and quantitative, makes possible the detection of low levels of amphetamine in biological material. By this means, amphetamine excreted in human urine of amphetamine psychotics was estimated. Subjects included patients who became psychotic through self-administration of amphetamine and also those in whom psychosis was induced under controlled conditions. A correlation between levels of amphetamine and specific behavioral symptoms was observed. Patients receiving extreme doses of amphetamine were also studied for the formation of potential metabolites of amphetamine that might be psychotoxic. The implications of these findings in understanding amphetamine psychosis and psychotic symptomatology in general will be discussed.
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The Portuguese presence in Sri Lanka dates back to the early sixteenth century and lasted some hundred and fifty years. It gave rise to a Creole language based on Portuguese, Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole (SLPC), which Dalgado (1936) considered to be the most vigorous of the Portuguese Creoles.
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