Application of Chitosan and Its Derivatives Against Plant Viruses
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Chitosan is a natural biopolymer that is industrially produced from chitin via deacetylation. Due to its unique properties and a plethora of biological activities, chitosan has found application in diverse areas from biomedicine to agriculture and the food sector. Chitosan is regarded as a biosafe, biodegradable, and biocompatible compound that was demonstrated to stimulate plant growth and to induce a general plant defense response, enhancing plant resistance to various pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and viruses. Here, we focus on chitosan application as an antiviral agent for plant protection. We review both the pioneer studies and recent research that report the effect of plant treatment with chitosan and its derivatives on viral infection. Special attention is paid to aspects that affect the biological activity of chitosan: polymer length and, correspondingly, its molecular weight; concentration; deacetylation degree and charge; application protocol; and experimental set-up. Thus, we compare the reported effects of various forms and derivatives of chitosan as well as chitosan-based nanomaterials, focusing on the putative mechanisms underlying chitosan-induced plant resistance to plant viruses.Keywords:
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Biocompatible material
Disposal of chitin wastes from crustacean shell can cause environmental and health hazards. Chitin is a well known abundant natural polymer extracted after deproteinization and demineralization of the shell wastes of shrimp, crab, lobster, and krill. Extraction of chitin and its derivatives from waste material is one of the alternative ways to turn the waste into useful products. Chitinases are enzymes that degrade chitin. Chitinases contribute to the generation of carbon and nitrogen in the ecosystem. Chitin and chitinolytic enzymes are gaining importance for their biotechnological applications. The presence of surface charge and multiple functional groups make chitin as a beneficial natural polymer. Due to the reactive functional groups chitin can be used for the preparation of a spectrum of chitin derivatives such as chitosan, alkyl chitin, sulfated chitin, dibutyryl chitin and carboxymethyl chitin for specific applications in different areas. The present review is aimed to summarize the efficacy of the chitinases on the chitin and its derivatives and their diverse applications in biomedical and environmental field. Further this review also discusses the synthesis of various chitin derivatives in detail and brings out the importance of chitin and its derivatives in biomedical and environmental applications.
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Among natural biopolymers, the greatest attention of researchers and industry leaders is attracted by chitin and chitosanbiopolymeric materials of the 21st century, which is primarily due to the large quantity reserves of these biopolymers (chitin is the second biopolymer in terms of renewability in nature and production after cellulose) and the field of application.Chitin is a nitrogencontaining polysaccharide with a cyclic cellulose structure.It is found in the shells of crustaceans and insects, in the cells of fungi and diatoms.Chitosan is a product of chitin deacetylation.The physical and chemical properties of these substances are determined by the characteristics of their molecules, which have active amino and hydroxyl groups.Chitin and chitosan are non-toxic and nonallergenic, biocompatible with human, animal and plant tissues and they are completely safe for the environment.Currently, chitin-chitosan and their modifications are used in the following applications such as: food additives and multicomponent food products for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes, medications (weight loss drugs, anticancer drugs), cosmetic preparations for skin care, means for purifying and stabilizing water in natural and artificial reservoirs, agricultural preparations (means for combating plant diseases) (more than 200 areas of practical application).The use of chitosan, a non-toxic and nonallergenic natural biopolymer, biocompatible with the human body, in the field of pharmaceuticals and biomedicine is considered promising.Chitosan is completely safe for humans and the environment, which is its biggest advantage; it is an environmentally friendly product because it completely decomposes under natural conditions.Increased demand for chitin and chitosan is expected in the Asia-Pacific region, Latin America, the Middle East and the CIS countries.The growth of the chitin and chitosan market is mainly affected by high production costs and pollution during the production process
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This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Chitin and Hyaluronic Acid in the Living World Milestones in Chitin History From Trehalose to Chitin Chitin Synthase Regulation of Chitin Synthesis in Fungi Organization of Chitin in the Fungal Cell Wall Organization of Chitin in the Arthropod Cuticle Chitin-Organizing Factors Secretion and Cuticle Formation Transcriptional Regulation of Cuticle Production Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors Noncuticular Chitin in Insects Chitin as a Structural Element Application of Chitin Conclusion References
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The presence of biopolymers in meat–biopolymer mixtures could influence thermal characterization of the system. This article reviews different ranges of functions that biopolymers perform in pig meat–biopolymer mixtures for halal issues. Effect of selected biopolymers such as starch, protein and hydrocolloids are summarized. The results revealed that the presence of different types of biopolymers (starch, protein and hydrocolloid) in the pig meat - biopolymer mixtures, the mixtures behaved differently from when they are present individually in a single phase. This could assist in understanding these characteristics for halal food issue.
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본 연구에서는 천연자원으로부터 α-, β- 및 γ-chitin을 분리하였고, 이를 이용하여 α-, β- 및 γ-chitosan을 제조하였다. 원재료의 화학적 조성과 chitin과 chitosan의 일반성분을 분석하였으며 상대점도측정과 Kina 적정법을 이용하여 점도평균분자량과 탈아세틸화도를 측정하였고 FT-IR spectrophotometer, soild state CP/MAS ^(13)C NMR spectrophotometer 에 의해 α-, β- 및 γ-chitin과 chitosan의 제조를 확인하였다. α-, β- 및 γ-chitin의 각각의 분자량이 701, 612 그리고 524 kDa으로 측정되었으며 α-, β-및 γ-chitosan의 분자량이 603, 607, 329 kDa임을 확인하였다. α-, β-및 γ-chitin의 탈아세틸화도가 21.8%, 3?.3% 그리고 44.7%로 확인되었고 α-, β- 및 γ-chitosan의 탈아세틸화도가 97.1%, 99.2%, 그리고 96.6% 임을 확인하였다. Chitin의 FT-IR 스펙트럼에서 amide I에서의 흡수 밴드가 α-chitin에 있어서는 이중선으로, β-chitin에 있어서는 단일선으로 나타났으며 γ-chitin에서는 α-, β-chitin의 중간형태로 나타났음을 확인하였다. Chitosan의 FT-IR 스펙트럼에서 탈아세틸화 반응에 의해 amide Ⅰ과 amide Ⅱ의 흡수 피크가 현저히 감소하였음을 확인하였다. Chitin의 Solide state CP/MAS ^(13)C NMR 스펙트럼결과에서 α-chitin의 경우 C3과 C5의 피크가 각각 73과 75 ppm에서 나타났으며 β-chitin은 74 ppm에서 단일선으로 나타났고, γ-chitin의 경우 C3과 C5의 흡수피크가 α-chitin과 유사한 형태의 피크를 나타내었다. Chitosan의 Soilde state CP/MAS ^(13) NMR 스펙트럼에서 C1~C6가 잘 나타나 있고, 탈아세틸화 반응에 의해 메틸탄소 및 카르보닐 탄소가 거의 나타나지 않았다.
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The recent results of thermodynamic studies of the basic physico chemical factors determining character of the biopolymer-biopolymer (protein, polysaccharide) interactions in aqueous medium are discussed. The emphasis is on consideration of such factors as biopolymer structure (molecular mass, size, conformation, charge) and composition of the aqueous medium (content of the low molecular weight inorganic /salts, pH/ and organic /lipophilic molecules: lipids, surface active additives or sucrose/ compounds. Correlation between the character of the biopolymer-biopolymer interactions and biopolymer functional properties in aqueous medium is demonstrated.
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초산전분과 미생물이 생산하는 biopolymer를 사용하여 smoked pork sausage를 제조하고 이들이 소시지 품질에 미치는 영향을 조사한 결과, 기계적 물성의 경도는 대조구에 비해 SA, SB, SC 모두 유의적으로 적었고, 응집성은 초산전분 단독으로 0.6%첨가한 시료 SA가 유의적으로 적게 나타났다. 점착성은 biopolymer을 첨가한 시료 SA와 SC가 유의적으로 크게 나타났고, 탄성은 대조구에 비해 모두 작게 나타났다. 껌성과 씹힘성은 4가지 시료 모두가 서로 유의적으로 다른 값을 가지므로써 초산전분과 biopolymer는 껌성과 씹힘성에 크게 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 기계적 물성의 상관관계에서 경도는 탄성, 껌성, 씹힘성과 서로 정의 상관관계로 나타났으며, 점착성과는 부의 상관관계로 나타났다. 절곡시험에서 초산전분 0.6%를 첨가한 시료 SB가 가장 좋았으며, VBN 함량은 biopolymer와 초산전분을 함께 첨가한 시료가 대조구에 비해 약 65% 정도 적게 생성되었다. 관능적 물성의 기호도 조사 결과, 껌성은 biopolymer을 첨가한 시험구 SA와 SC가 유의적으로 좋게 나타났고 (p<0.001), 소시지의 전체적인 기호도는 부서짐성과 씹힘성, 그리고 껌성이 기호도에 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타남에 따라 biopolymer를 첨가한 시료가 유의적으로 좋게 나타났다(p<0.001). 전체적인 기호도의 상관관계에서는 관능검사의 씹힘성과 기계적 물성의 껌성이 서로 유의차를 갖는 것으로 나타났다(p<0.05).
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최근 생물공학의 발달과 함께 미생물 Biopolymer에 대한 관심이 새로워지고 있다. 미생물이 생산하는 Biopolymer는 생분해성(Biodegradability), 우수한 성능 (performance), 재생 가능한 기질의 사용, 그리고 구조의 다양성 등의 장점을 갖고 있어 연구, 개발에 의하여 그 용도가 크게 증가할 것으로 예상된다. Biopolymer의 범위를 Biomedical polymer, RNA, Protein 등으로 넓게 포함시킬수 있으나 본고에서는 미생물이 생산하는 biopolymer에 대하여 필자의 연구실에서 연구되고 있는 다음의 3가지 범위로 제한하여 고찰하고자 한다. 1) PHB-an intracellular biopolymer 2) polysaccharides-extracellular biopolymers 3) Phenol resins-in vitro enzyme synthesized polymer
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Occurrence of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives applications of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives chitin-related enzymes methods of preparation and production structure and properties of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives methods of analysis and characterization.
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