What is moving where? Infants’ visual attention to dynamic objects may assist with processing of spatial relations
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Introduction A central question in infant spatial cognition concerns how infants form abstract categories of spatial relations such as support ( on ) and containment ( in ). Prior work suggests two different possibilities regarding the role of attention to objects in infants’ formation of abstract categories of spatial relations: Attention to objects may compete with (and thus hamper) attention to the spatial relations between them, or assist with encoding of the spatial relation information. Using eye-tracking, we examined how infants’ visual attention to objects related to their successful formation of an abstract category of support relations (i.e., an object on another). Methods Thirty-eight 8-month-old infants’ eye movements were recorded during a support categorization task, where infants were habituated to four dynamic events depicting support relations (e.g., resting a block on a box) and then presented with test events that depicted either a support or containment relation with objects that they had seen or not seen in the habituation phase. Based on their looking time to the familiar versus novel spatial relation in the test, infants were classified into two groups: categorizers, who formed an abstract category of a support relation, and non-categorizers, who did not do so. Results During their initial phase of learning (i.e., the first habituation trial), categorizers paid greater attention to the object moved by a hand (i.e., the dynamic object) in comparison to non-categorizers, whereas their attention to the static object or their gaze shifts between the two objects did not differ. In addition, when presented with novel objects in a novel spatial relation after habituation, only categorizers displayed asymmetric attention between the objects, attending to the dynamic object more than the static object. Gaze shifts and attention to the concave area (i.e., hole) of the container did not differ between categorizers and non-categorizers. Discussion These findings suggest that infants’ focused attention to an object in motion may play a key role in young infants’ spatial category learning, and support the idea that attention to objects can assist with encoding of the spatial relational information.Keywords:
Spatial relation
Tracking (education)
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Visualizing gaze data is an effective way for the quick interpretation of eye tracking results. This paper presents a study investigation benefits and limitations of visual gaze analysis among eye tracking professionals and researchers. The results were used to create a tool for visual gaze analysis within a Master's project.
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The use of eye-tracking technology to study eye-movements has increased substantially over the last decade. For instance, areas that relate to image scanning, matching-to-sample learning, driving, and reading exhibit this trend. Despite the fact that eye-tracking technology reveals a participant's eye-movement and fixation pattern during an experiment, when can we say that he or she has emitted an ocular observing response to a visual discriminative stimulus? The purpose of the present article is to focus on some influential publications on the observing response and eye-fixation, investigated with eye-tracking technology, and thereby to provide a conceptual distinction between fixating, observing, and attending. Basically, (a) eye-fixations are detected by event-specific algorithms; (b) ocular observing responses occur with and without clear-cut eye-fixation; and (c) ocular observing responses are context-specific, hence, vary across behaviors, settings, and individuals. Finally, we describe in-depth dependent fixation measures as rate, number, proportion, and pattern to offer a broad view on how eye-tracking analysis can provide us with a better understanding of complex human behavior.
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Analyzing the eye movements made while inspecting a visual environment can be of valuable help to get insight in the involved cognitive processes. With the help of state-of-the-art eye-tracking systems and using various paradigms, researchers are able to measure and interpret different eye movement parameters such as fixations, saccades, pupil size and scan paths when evaluating visual surfaces (e.g. in consumer research or user interface design). These analyses allow to widen the knowledge on complex processes, such as decision-making, or to investigate e.g. learning strategies. The current article aims at giving an overview of how eye-tracking and the analysis of eye movements, respectively, might be useful in the emerging and changing field of Learning Research: Firstly, the physiological and anatomical basics of eye movements are reflected, then the concept of eye-tracking and different technological systems for that purpose are introduced. Moreover, we will summarize eye movement parameters and finally end with a reflection of eye-tracking in Learning Research.
Gaze-contingency paradigm
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Gaze-contingency paradigm
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This chapter contains sections titled: Eye Tracker in Anxiety Research: What is the Idea? The Association of Anxiety and Attention Methods of Assessing the Attention Bias and Their Limitations Emotional Stroop Task and Dot-Probe Paradigm: Reliability and Validity The Relative Benefits of Eye Tracking Types of Eye Trackers Tobii Eye Tracker System Components of Eye Movements Implications for Eye Movement Analysis Eye Tracker: Reliability Eye Movement Studies in Adults with Anxiety Disorders Eye Tracking Studies in Anxious Children and Adolescents Limitations of Eye Tracking Issues Relevant in Eye Tracking Studies with Children Future Research Acknowledgements References
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The present article describes how to use eye tracking methodologies to study the cognitive processes involved in text comprehension. Measuring eye movements during reading is one of the most precise methods for measuring moment-by-moment (online) processing demands during text comprehension. Cognitive processing demands are reflected by several aspects of eye movement behavior, such as fixation duration, number of fixations, and number of regressions (returning to prior parts of a text). Important properties of eye tracking equipment that researchers need to consider are described, including how frequently the eye position is measured (sampling rate), accuracy of determining eye position, how much head movement is allowed, and ease of use. Also described are properties of stimuli that influence eye movements that need to be controlled in studies of text comprehension, such as the position, frequency, and length of target words. Procedural recommendations related to preparing the participant, setting up and calibrating the equipment, and running a study are given. Representative results are presented to illustrate how data can be evaluated. Although the methodology is described in terms of reading comprehension, much of the information presented can be applied to any study in which participants read verbal stimuli.
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The current review offers a unique introduction to the use of corneal reflection eye tracking in infancy research. We provide a detailed description of how to calibrate, collect, and analyze infants' gaze in a series of experimental paradigms, focusing specifically on the analysis of visual tracking, point of gaze, and the latency of gaze shifts (prediction and reactive gaze shifts). The article ends with a critical discussion about the pros and cons of corneal reflection eye tracking.
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The present article describes how to use eye tracking methodologies to study the cognitive processes involved in text comprehension. Measuring eye movements during reading is one of the most precise methods for measuring moment-by-moment (online) processing demands during text comprehension. Cognitive processing demands are reflected by several aspects of eye movement behavior, such as fixation duration, number of fixations, and number of regressions (returning to prior parts of a text). Important properties of eye tracking equipment that researchers need to consider are described, including how frequently the eye position is measured (sampling rate), accuracy of determining eye position, how much head movement is allowed, and ease of use. Also described are properties of stimuli that influence eye movements that need to be controlled in studies of text comprehension, such as the position, frequency, and length of target words. Procedural recommendations related to preparing the participant, setting up and calibrating the equipment, and running a study are given. Representative results are presented to illustrate how data can be evaluated. Although the methodology is described in terms of reading comprehension, much of the information presented can be applied to any study in which participants read verbal stimuli.
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