Phylogenetics, subspecies, and conservation of the eastern pinesnake
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Abstract Whether or where to draw subspecies' taxonomic boundaries is much more than an esoteric argument. Subspecific taxonomies and associated geographic ranges have important conservation and management implications because the Endangered Species Act (ESA) protects distinct populations segments below the species level. Genomic data can help resolve taxonomic disputes and assist with conservation policy; however, because subspecific lineages often exhibit gene flow, genomic lineages for subspecific taxa are rarely distinct. We used genomic data from the eastern pinesnake ( Pituophis melanoleucus ) to determine the geographic range of the morphologically variable Florida pinesnake ( P. m. mugitus ), which is petitioned for listing under the ESA. The overall genomic pattern of the eastern pinesnake is one of admixture, and there are gradual differences over the wide range of the species. But there still are discernable areas of genetic differentiation that correspond to the morphologically defined Florida pinesnake, and other subspecies. This pattern of admixture should be expected for subspecies. We propose that boundaries for the Florida pinesnake should maximize the species redundancy, resilience, and representation based on genomic data. We also propose best practices for managers and policymakers interpreting genomic data of subspecies, given that the genomic cutoffs will rarely be truly distinct.Keywords:
Subspecies
Abstract Most species of the genus Acoptolabrus are considerably rare and have a beautiful body color, making them interesting for collectors. Among the subspecies, A. mirabilissimus mirabilissimus is designated legally as an endangered species in Korea. However, studies on the adults and their immature stages remain limited. Thus, this study was carried out to identify the morphological characteristics of the larval stages. The larvae were obtained by captive breeding adult A. m. sangjuensis , a subspecies closely related to the protected subspecies, and examining them for external characteristics. Further, morphological descriptions and diagnostic characters of each stage of the larvae were provided, including their adult photos.
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Abstract Phylogenetic trees reconstructed from molecular sequences are often considered more reliable than those reconstructed from morphological characters, in part because convergent evolution, which confounds phylogenetic reconstruction, is believed to be rarer for molecular sequences than for morphologies. However, neither the validity of this belief nor its underlying cause is known. Here comparing thousands of characters of each type that have been used for inferring the phylogeny of mammals, we find that on average morphological characters indeed experience much more convergences than amino acid sites, but this disparity is explained by fewer states per character rather than an intrinsically higher susceptibility to convergence for morphologies than sequences. We show by computer simulation and actual data analysis that a simple method for identifying and removing convergence-prone characters improves phylogenetic accuracy, potentially enabling, when necessary, the inclusion of morphologies and hence fossils for reliable tree inference.
Convergent evolution
Tree (set theory)
Molecular Phylogenetics
Morphology
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In the course of a recent taxonomic study on East African Agama species it became clear that a population of A. caudospinosa Meek, 1910 from Mt. Kenya is clearly distinct to specimens from the type locality at Lake Elmenteita (both in Kenya). Therefore, a new subspecies is described on the basis of morphological characters. This new subspecies shows a similar colouration in both sexes which is unique in the genus Agama.
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Agamidae
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Common descent
Morphology
Convergent evolution
Molecular Phylogenetics
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The taxonomy of honey bee A. mellifera contains a lot of issues due to the specificity of population structure, features of biology and resolutions of honey bee subspecies discrimination methods. There are a lot of transition zones between ranges of subspecies which led to the gradual changes of characteristics among neighbor subspecies. The modern taxonomic pattern of honey bee Apis mellifera is given in this paper. Thirty-three distinct honey bee subspecies are distributed across all Africa (11 subspecies), Western Asia and the Middle East (9 subspecies), and Europe (13 subspecies). All honey bee subspecies are subdivided into 5 evolutionary lineages: lineage A (10 subspecies) and its sublineage Z (3 subspecies), lineage M (3 subspecies), lineage C (10 subspecies), lineage O (3 subspecies), lineage Y (1 subspecies), lineage C or O (3 subspecies).
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Lineage (genetic)
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For subspecies divergence of red panda,two subspecies of the red panda ( A.f.fulgens and A.f.styani ) have been described.However,the validity of these two subspecies is argued because of the significant variation in coloration among individuals of same subspecies.Therefore,further taxonomic study within the genus is recommended by the conservation biologists to examine the validity of the two described subspecies.In this study,DNA fingerprinting technique is applied to validate the present subspecific status of red panda.Our results obtained from DNA fingerprints indicate that all individuals of A.f.styani have a 8 4?kb band which the individuals of A.f.fulgens lack.Conversely,all individuals of A.f.fulgens share another band of 1 8?kb which individuals of A.f.styani lack.These two characteristic bands can pass on parents to offsprings,which meet Mendelian fashion.Furthermore,differences in polymorphic and genetic variations between two subspecies also indicate that the gene flow between two subspecies might become smaller and smaller after these two subspecies are formed.This further supports that there are genetic divergences of two subspecies and the status of two subspecies is valid from the view of genetic level.
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The European breeding programme (EEP) for palm cockatoos Probosciger aterrimus has managed two subspecies, P. a. goliath and P. a. aterrimus , separately since it was found that only these two subspecies were distinct genetic lineages. Until recently a captive palm cockatoo was assigned to one or the other subspecies relying solely on morphology, P. a. goliath being reputedly larger than P. a. aterrimus . This study aimed at first to determine the subspecies of 78 captive palm cockatoos – mainly members of the EEP population – by sequencing a mitochondrial marker which had proved relevant for wild specimens. We also collected several anatomical measurements in order to compare the morphology with the molecular marker and to assess the presumed link between morphology and subspecies. Ten different haplotypes were found over 54 non-related samples, which could be arranged into two groups consistent with the subspecies P. a. goliath and P. a. aterrimus . Morphometric analyses revealed significant differences between the two subspecies, although there was some overlap between values for P. a. goliath and P. a. aterrimus . A stepwise discriminant analysis, which included one criterion for females and two criteria for males, allowed a correct assignation of 95% on average for our sample. These results allowed us to confirm that the captive population of palm cockatoos consists of two distinct genetic subgroups, which overall match with morphotypes. Therefore to preserve these two different conservation units we advise that P. a. goliath and P. a. aterrimus continue to be managed as two separate breeding populations. Morphology using a recommended set of measurements gives a fairly reliable insight into the subspecies identity for a newly introduced palm cockatoo, but testing mtDNA is highly recommended to confirm the correct subspecies determination.
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Morphometrics
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Lineage (genetic)
Protist
Multicellular organism
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The origins and evolution of metazoa(metazoans) traditionally studied on their comparative morphology and embryology are important issues in animal biology, palaeontology and evolutionary biology. As the successive progress and universally application of molecular genetics and molecualr developmental biology in these study areas, it is possible to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of all groups of metazoans on their genetic and developmental mechanisms. In this paper, we reviewed the molecular phylogeny and discussed the existing problems in metazoan studies, meanwhile, we are also oversighting the studies of matazoan evolution in the future.
Comparative biology
Morphology
Molecular Phylogenetics
Molecular evolution
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