Supplementary Table 4 from Cranial shape evolution in adaptive radiations of birds: comparative morphometrics of Darwin's finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers
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A list of skeletal specimens analyzed in this study, along with information about catalogue number and sex (male or female).Keywords:
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Abstract The recent expansion of a variety of morphometric tools has brought about a revolution in the comparison of morphology in the context of the size and shape in various fields including entomology. First, an overview of the theoretical issues of geometric morphometrics is presented with a caution about the usage of traditional morphometric measurements. Second, focus is then placed on two broad approaches as tools for geometric morphometrics; that is, the landmark‐based and the outline‐based approaches. A brief outline of the two methodologies is provided with some important cautions. The increasing trend of entomological studies in using the procedures of geometric morphometrics is then summarized. Finally, information is provided on useful toolkits such as computer software as well as codes and packages of the R statistical software that could be used in geometric morphometrics.
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Detection of morphologically indistinguishable cryptic species implies using an integrative taxonomic approach with a combination of molecular, contemporary morphological, ecological and other relevant analyses. Within a contemporary morphological analysis, two approaches are commonly used in hoverfly taxonomy: a geometric morphometric analysis of the wing and surstyle shape. Here, the importance of the R4+5 vein shape is tested in cryptic species delimitation within four Merodon species groups using linear and semilandmark geometric morphometric analyses. As expected, geometric morphometrics showed a stronger resolution compared to linear morphometrics. Linear morphometrics failed to detect differences related to sexual dimorphism or differences among the species M. pruni and M. obscurus. However, all cryptic species and sexes were separated with high significance based on the R4+5 vein shape. Moreover, obtained results concurred with the landmark-defined wing shape and molecular results published in previous studies. Additionally, combining two characters, the semilandmark R4+5 vein shape and the landmark-defined wing shape, provided more detailed and precise insights into the shape differences. Our results showed that the R4+5 vein shape stands out as an important character in species delimitation of hoverflies where the sinuation of this vein is present. Therefore, it can be beneficial as a single character or in combination with a landmark-based wing shape analysis.
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To study the intraspecies taxonomy of the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera), geometric morphometrics analyses can now replace the standard morphometry method, yet its availability for microtaxonomy of the Asian honeybee (Apis cerana F.) has not been reported. In order to assess effectiveness of geometric morphometrics analyses using the forewing in the microtaxonomy of the Asian honeybee, 180 individual worker bees were sampled from three sample sites, Jilin, Hainan, and Shaanxi, representing different habitats for A. cerana within China. Bees were analyzed by discrimination analysis using three methods: (1) standard morphometry method with 33 traditional characters, (2) simplified standard morphometry method with only 11 wing vein angles, and (3) geometric morphometrics analyses with 18 wing vein junctions. The results revealed that geometric morphometrics analyses could reflect the variability information of the forewing vein structures of A. cerana. Morphological differentiation at the three sample sites was identified. Cross-validation indicated the percentage of individuals falling into each sample site, were 98.3%, 95.0%, and 88.3% for Jilin, Hainan, and Shaanxi, respectively. Geometric morphometrics analyses produced classification results similar to those produced using the standard morphometry method, and it was superior for presenting the wing vein variability information compared to the simplified standard morphometry method. Therefore, we conclude that geometric morphometrics analyses could be efficient and effective in the microtaxonomy of A. cerana. Furthermore, geometric morphometrics is a potential method for resolving A. cerana subspecies classification issues.
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Apis cerana
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