Francesco PadormoPaul CawleyLouise DillonEmer HughesJennifer AlmalbisJoanna Hofer-RobinsonAlessandra MaggioniMiguel De La Fuente BotellaDaniel CrombAnthony N. PriceLori R. ArlinghausJohn PittsTianrui LuoDingtian ZhangSean DeoniSteven WilliamsShaihan MalikJonathan O’MuircheartaighSerena J. CounsellMary RutherfordTomoki ArichiA. David EdwardsJoseph V. Hajnal
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Purpose Ultralow‐field (ULF) point‐of‐care MRI systems allow image acquisition without interrupting medical provision, with neonatal clinical care being an important potential application. The ability to measure neonatal brain tissue T 1 is a key enabling technology for subsequent structural image contrast optimization, as well as being a potential biomarker for brain development. Here we describe an optimized strategy for neonatal T 1 mapping at ULF. Methods Examinations were performed on a 64‐mT portable MRI system. A phantom validation experiment was performed, and a total of 33 in vivo exams were acquired from 28 neonates with postmenstrual age ranging from 31 +4 to 49 +0 weeks. Multiple inversion‐recovery turbo spin‐echo sequences were acquired with differing inversion and repetition times. An analysis pipeline incorporating inter‐sequence motion correction generated proton density and T 1 maps. Regions of interest were placed in the cerebral deep gray matter, frontal white matter, and cerebellum. Weighted linear regression was used to predict T 1 as a function of postmenstrual age. Results Reduction of T 1 with postmenstrual age is observed in all measured brain tissue; the change in T 1 per week and 95% confidence intervals is given by dT 1 = −21 ms/week [−25, −16] (cerebellum), dT 1 = −14 ms/week [−18, −10] (deep gray matter), and dT 1 = −35 ms/week [−45, −25] (white matter). Conclusion Neonatal T 1 values at ULF are shorter than those previously described at standard clinical field strengths, but longer than those of adults at ULF. T 1 reduces with postmenstrual age and is therefore a candidate biomarker for perinatal brain development.Keywords:
Brain tissue
Abstract Pathophysiological and atrophic changes in the cerebellum have been well‐documented in schizophrenia. Reduction of gray matter (GM) in the cerebellum was confirmed across cognitive and motor cerebellar modules in schizophrenia. Such abnormalities in the cerebellum could potentially have widespread effects on both sensorimotor and cognitive symptoms. In this study, we investigated how reduction change in the cerebellum affects the static and the dynamic functional connectivity (FC) between the cerebellum and cortical/subcortical networks in schizophrenia. Reduction of GM in the cerebellum was confirmed across the cognitive and motor cerebellar modules in schizophrenic subjects. Results from this study demonstrates that the extent of reduction of GM within cerebellum correlated with increased static FCs between the cerebellum and the cortical/subcortical networks, including frontoparietal network (FPN), and thalamus in patients with schizophrenia. Decreased GM in the cerebellum was also associated with a declined dynamic FC between the cerebellum and the FPN in schizophrenic subjects. The severity of patients' positive symptom was related to these structural‐functional coupling score of cerebellum. These findings identified potential cerebellar driven functional changes associated with positive symptom deficits. A post hoc analysis exploring the effect of changed FC within cerebellum, confirmed that a significant positive relationship, between dynamic FCs of cerebellum–thalamus and intracerebellum existed in patients, but not in controls. The reduction of GM within the cerebellum might be associated with modulation of cerebellum–thalamus, and contributes to the dysfunctional cerebellar‐cortical communication in schizophrenia. Our results provide a new insight into the role of cerebellum in understanding the pathophysiological of schizophrenia.
Dynamic functional connectivity
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The cerebellum, a structure derived from the dorsal part of the most anterior hindbrain, is important for integrating sensory perception and motor control. While the structure and development of the cerebellum have been analyzed most extensively in mammals,recent studies have shown that the anatomy and development of the cerebellum is conserved between mammals and bony fish (teleost) species, including zebrafish. In the mammalian and teleost cerebellum,Purkinje and granule cells serve, respectively, as the major GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons. Purkinje cells originate in the ventricular zone (VZ), and receive inputs from climbing fibers. Granule cells originate in the upper rhombic lip (URL) and receive inputs from mossy fibers. Thus, the teleost cerebellum shares many features with the cerebellum of other vertebrates, and isa good model system for studying cerebellar function and development. The teleost cerebellum also has features that are specific to teleosts or have not been elucidated in mammals, including eurydendroid cells and adult neurogenesis. Furthermore, the neural circuitry in part of the optic tectum and the dorsal hindbrain closely resembles the circuitry of the teleost cerebellum; hence,these are called cerebellum-like structures. Here we describe the anatomy and development of cerebellar neurons and their circuitry, and discuss the possible roles of the cerebellum and cerebellum-like structures in behavior and higher cognitive functions. We also consider the potential use of genetics and novel techniques for studying the cerebellum in zebrafish.
Hindbrain
Parallel fiber
Granule cell
Forebrain
Deep cerebellar nuclei
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There are cerebellum-like structures, including the valvula and the electroreceptive lateral line lobe (ELL), that are found in certain species of fish, as well as the mammalian dorsal cochlear nucleus, the architecture and molecular biology of which in some respects strikingly resemble that of the cerebellum of vertebrates. These merit separate discussion from the topics in Chapter 2 on comparative anatomy of the cerebellum.
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It has been known since the early nineteenth century that injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances in equilibrium and in coordination of movements. These symptoms appeared to be accounted for when it was discovered in neuroanatomical studies that the cerebellum has extensive connections with both motor and sensory systems. The complexity of the input—output relations of the cerebellum as revealed by these studies is perhaps most easily understood if the phylogenetic history of the cerebellum is considered (see Fig. 17.1).
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The nervous systems of most vertebrates include both the cerebellum and structures that are architecturally similar to the cerebellum. The cerebellum-like structures are sensory structures that receive input from the periphery in their deep layers and parallel fiber input in their molecular layers. This review describes these cerebellum-like structures and compares them with the cerebellum itself. The cerebellum-like structures in three groups of fish act as adaptive sensory processors in which the signals conveyed by parallel fibers in the molecular layer predict the patterns of sensory input to the deep layers through a process of associative synaptic plasticity. Similarities between the cerebellum-like structures and the cerebellum suggest that the cerebellum may also generate predictions about expected sensory inputs or states of the system, as suggested also by clinical, experimental, and theoretical studies of the cerebellum. Understanding the process of predicting sensory patterns in cerebellum-like structures may therefore be a source of insight into cerebellar function.
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Inferior olivary nucleus
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