A Brief History of Colour, the Environmental Impact of Synthetic Dyes and Removal by Using Laccases
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The history of colour is fascinating from a social and artistic viewpoint because it shows the way; use; and importance acquired. The use of colours date back to the Stone Age (the first news of cave paintings); colour has contributed to the social and symbolic development of civilizations. Colour has been associated with hierarchy; power and leadership in some of them. The advent of synthetic dyes has revolutionized the colour industry; and due to their low cost; their use has spread to different industrial sectors. Although the percentage of coloured wastewater discharged by the textile; food; pharmaceutical; cosmetic; and paper industries; among other productive areas; are unknown; the toxic effect and ecological implications of this discharged into water bodies are harmful. This review briefly shows the social and artistic history surrounding the discovery and use of natural and synthetic dyes. We summarise the environmental impact caused by the discharge of untreated or poorly treated coloured wastewater to water bodies; which has led to physical; chemical and biological treatments to reduce the colour units so as important physicochemical parameters. We also focus on laccase utility (EC 1.10.3.2), for discolouration enzymatic treatment of coloured wastewater, before its discharge into water bodies. Laccases (p-diphenol: oxidoreductase dioxide) are multicopper oxidoreductase enzymes widely distributed in plants, insects, bacteria, and fungi. Fungal laccases have employed for wastewater colour removal due to their high redox potential. This review includes an analysis of the stability of laccases, the factors that influence production at high scales to achieve discolouration of high volumes of contaminated wastewater, the biotechnological impact of laccases, and the degradation routes that some dyes may follow when using the laccase for colour removalAbstract A simple separation method was used in this study to directly separate laccase-producing fungi from withered plant materials. A laccase-producing filamentous fungus was isolated and purified. The strain was highly similar to the species in genus Trametes by ITS sequence analysis, and therefore named Trametes sp. MA-X01. The addition of cupric ions and aromatic compounds to the liquid medium could induce the laccase synthesis in Trametes sp. MA-X01. Copper-induced laccase activity increased in a dose-dependent manner. The highest laccase activity (2138.9 ± 340.2 U/L) was obtained by adding 2.5 mM Cu 2+ to the culture medium, which was about 7 times higher than that of the control group. The induction degree of aromatic compounds was different. For the present study, the highest laccase activities were obtained by adding vanillic acid (1007.9±59.5 U/L) or vanillin (981.6±77.2 U/L) to the medium, which were 3.5 and 3.4 times higher than the laccase activity of the control group, respectively.
Vanillic acid
Trametes versicolor
Strain (injury)
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Podospora anserina
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Laccases are polyphenol oxidase enzymes and form the enzyme complex known for their role in wood decomposition and lignin degradation. The present study aimed to systematically review the state-of-the-art trends in scientific publications on laccase enzymes of the last 10 years. The main aspects checked included the laccase-producing fungal genera, the conditions of fungal growth and laccase production, the methods of immobilization, and potential applications of laccase. After applying the systematic search method 177 articles were selected to compound the final database. Although various fungi produce laccase, most studies were Trametes and Pleurotus genera. The submerged fermentation (SmF) has been the most used, however, the use of solid-state fermentation (SSF) appeared as a promising technique to produce laccase when using agro-industrial residues as substrates. Studies on laccase immobilization showed the covalent bonding and entrapment methods were the most used, showing greater efficiency of immobilization and a high number of enzyme reuses. The main use of the laccase was in bioremediation, especially in the discoloration of dyes from the textile industry and the degradation of pharmaceutical waste. Implications and consequences of all these findings in biotechnology and environment, as well as the trends and gaps of laccase research were discussed.
Solid-State Fermentation
Pleurotus
Trametes versicolor
Fungal protein
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Analogs of N-hydroxyacetanilide (NHA), one of the best laccase-mediators reported so far, were prepared and evaluated as laccase-mediators for pulp bleaching. Kinetic properties of laccase for these NHA analogs were also determined. It was found that the kinetic properties of laccase such as Km and kcat are significantly influenced by the composition of laccase-mediators. It was demonstrated for the first time that more effective laccase-mediators could be developed through chemical modification of another laccase-mediator.
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Pleurotus florida NCIM 1243 produced laccase as the dominant lignolytic enzyme during the dye decolorization. Banana peel was the best substrate for extracellular laccase production under solid state fermentation when compared to mandarin peel and cantaloupe peel. The maximum activity of laccase (5.4 U/g) was detected on the 10 day. The ratio of banana peel: mandarin peel: cantaloupe peel (5:2:3) showed increased production of laccase (6.8 U/g). P. florida produced two extracellular laccase isoenzymes (L1 and L2). The half life of laccase at 60 degrees C was 2 h and at 4 h it retained 25% residual activity. P. florida laccase showed high thermostability and an interesting difference was noticed in the behavior of laccase isoenzymes at different temperature. The L1 isoenzyme of laccase showed remarked thermostability at 60 degrees C in the native PAGE when compared to L2 isoenzyme. The optimum pH, temperature and enzyme concentration for maximum decolorization was found to be 4.5, 60 degrees C and 1.2 U/ml, respectively. Partially purified laccase enzyme showed excellent decolorization activity to Reactive blue 198. The maximum decolorization (96%) was observed at lower dye concentrations (50-100 ppm) which decreased markedly when the dye concentration was increased beyond 150 ppm. The thermostable laccase of P. florida could be effectively used to decolorize the synthetic dyes in the textile effluent and other biotechnological applications.
Thermostability
Solid-State Fermentation
Pleurotus
ABTS
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We studied the laccase of polyporus in the curve of laccase production and optimal condition of laccase reaction. The result showed that polyporus came the laccase production peak which was 412u/mL at the 9th day in this culture condition The optimum temperature and optimum pH of laccase reaction were 25℃ and 4.2.Mg2+and Mn2+increased laccase activity whereas Ag+?Fe3+and Clobviously inhibited it.
Polyporus
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In this paper, the laccase activities of 18 woodrot fungi were studied. The results showed that the maxmum activity of laccase of Pleurotus lignetilis was 605.0 u·mL-1, then the maxmum activity of laccase of Trametes trogii and Corilus versicolar were 440.0 u·mL-1 and 400.0 u·mL-1. Different pH values and inorganic ions had different effects on laccase activities of Pleurotus lignetilis. The optimum pH value of laccase of Pleurotus lignetilis was 4.6, Cu2+ ?Mg2+?Na+?Co2+ increased laccase activities whereas Ag+?K+?Ca2+?Hg2+?Fe2+ ?Cl- and Zn2+ significantly inhibited it.
Pleurotus
Trametes versicolor
White rot
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The effect of pH, metal ion and temperature on Coriolus versicolor laccase activity and stability was studied in the paper. Meanwhile, the substrate concentration effect of this laccase is also studied and Km is measured. The results showed: Cu~(2+) and Co~(2+) had activation but Ag~+ had inhibition on activity of laccase. The optimum pH of the laccase was 4.8, and the laccase was stable from pH4 to 4.8. The optimum temperature of laccase was 40 ℃; and the laccase could work continuously under 50 ℃. The Km of the laccase measured 4.2×10~(-3) mol/L.
Trametes versicolor
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