The antioxidant activities of Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng) and ginsenosides: A systemic review through in vivo and clinical trials
Soo Kyoung ParkSun Hee HyunGyo InChae-Kyu ParkYi-Seong KwakYoung Jin JangBumseok KimJong‐Hoon KimChang-Kyun Han
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A wide range of studies have steadily pointed out the relation of oxidative stress to the primary and secondary causes of human disease and aging. As such, there have been multiple misconceptions about oxidative stress. Most of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from chronic diseases cause oxidative damage to cell membrane lipids and proteins. ROS production is increased by abnormal stimulation inside and outside in the body, and even though ROS are generated in cells in response to abnormal metabolic processes such as disease, it does not mean that they directly contribute to the pathogenesis of a disease. Therefore, the focus of treatment should not be on ROS production itself but on the prevention and treatment of diseases linked to ROS production, including types 1 and 2 diabetes, cancer, heart disease, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In this regard, Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been traditionally utilized to help prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes, cancer, inflammation, nervous system diseases, cardiovascular disease, and hyperlipidemia. Therefore, this review was intended to summarize in vivo animal and human clinical studies on the antioxidant activities of KRG and its components, ginsenosides.Reactive nitrogen species
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It is well established that the accumulation of high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to excessive generation of ROS and/or impaired antioxidant capacity of cells, can result in oxidative stress and cause oxidative damage to cells and their functions [...]
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Reactive oxygen species is the normal metabolic products of organism,but the existing of it has two sides.Natural antioxidant,as the component of the body's antioxidant non-enzymatic system,it can not only eliminates reactive oxygen species directly,but also can restrains the producing of reactive oxygen species or enhances the level of endogenous antioxidative substances through interacting on the antioxidant response element,or inhibits the expression of antioxidant enzyme to reduce the producing of ROS.Generally,different antioxidants have synergistic effects when exercising it's antioxidation.
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The concept and manifestation of stress and forms of environmental stress which was defined as a biological response to an event that an individual perceives as a threat to its homeostasis are linked to the activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal system. Under normal conditions, cells have well-developed antioxidants systems that minimize the pertubations caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, when ROS generations are increased to an extent that they overcome the cellular antioxidants then oxidative stress results. Oxidative stress is seen as a battle between inducers (pro-oxidants) and protective factors (antioxidants), because ROS are partially products of oxygen; they have a high chemical reactivity with other bio-macromolecules that may lead to lipid peroxidation and oxidation. Due to this reactivity, oxidative stress is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of environmental stress. Keywords : Environmental stress, Reactive oxygen species, Oxidative stress, Antioxidants.
Homeostasis
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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the molecular oxygen derivatives that have at least one unpaired electron. Thus, ROS easily react with a number of cell structures causing a change in their functions. ROS produced in small quantities positively affect many cellular mechanisms, but in excess are responsible for the formation of oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is considered a major cause of many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. Abolition of the adverse effects of ROS on organisms in order to maintain redox homeostasis is possible thanks to antioxidants. The research conducted mainly in recent years shows that the formation of arrhythmias may also be related to the phenomenon of oxidative stress. Oxidative damage to cell membranes in particular are causing changes in ion channel activity, which proper functioning is the basis for the formation of normal heart rhythm. Antioxidants seem to play a protective role against the formation of arrhythmias.
Homeostasis
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Oxidative stress is an imbalance between the production of a reactive oxygen species and the antioxidant defense, leading to tissue damage. The produced reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, and peroxyl radical result in damage to many biological molecules (including DNA, lipids, and protein), and the prolonged existence of these reactive oxygen species promotes severe tissue damage and cell death.[1,2] It has been proposed that there is a causal relationship between insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and periodontitis and that hyperglycemia is a major factor responsible for the activation of oxidative stress.[1,2]
Hydroxyl radical
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Mitochondria are known to generate approximately 90% of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The imbalance between mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production and removal due to overproduction of ROS and/or decreased antioxidants defense activity results in oxidative stress (OS), which leads to oxidative damage that affects several cellular components such as lipids, DNA, and proteins. Since the kidney is a highly energetic organ, it is more vulnerable to damage caused by OS and thus its contribution to the development and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). This article aims to review the contribution of mtROS and OS to CKD progression and kidney function deterioration.
Mitochondrial ROS
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Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a normal process. Under physiological conditions, these deleterious species are mostly removed by the cellular antioxidant systems, which include antioxidant vitamins, protein and non-protein thiols, and antioxidant enzymes. An acute bout of exercise at sufficient intensity has been shown to stimulate activities of antioxidant enzymes. This could be considered as a defensive mechanism of the cell under oxidative stress. However, we still have insufficient knowledge about the interaction between exercise and antioxidants, which are important in assessing the adequacy of protection against oxidative damage and about the necessity of dietary manipulation and/or supplementation. This review concerns effects of acute exercise on various oxidative stress parameters and antioxidant defense system.
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