Neutral effects of turbidity across a gradient of vegetation density on the predation of juvenile mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi)
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Abstract Mandarin fish Siniperca chuatsi is a widespread piscivorous species in lakes of the Yangtze River basin. However, their wild population has drastically declined, and survival and growth rates of stocked populations are low. Anthropogenic activities have reduced submersed vegetation and increased turbidity in lakes containing S. chuatsi , thus, we hypothesize that reduced submersed vegetation and increased turbidity could inhibit the feeding efficiency of juvenile S. chuatsi , subsequently reducing their growth and survival. To test this hypothesis, we experimentally examined the effects of a range of vegetation density and turbidity on predation of S. chuatsi . Laboratory predation trials were performed with a common prey fish Carassius auratus offered simultaneously to S. chuatsi in clear or turbid water under five different levels of vegetation density (0, 20, 40, 80, and 120 stems/m 2 ). The total prey consumption per day (in 24 hr) by S. chuatsi on C. auratus was significantly affected by vegetation density, with the consumption positively linearly related with increased vegetation density. The total prey consumption was unaffected by turbidity. Prey size selection was not significantly influenced by vegetation density or turbidity. These results indicate that turbidity does not appear to negatively affect the predation of S. chuatsi , but a reduction of vegetation can negatively influence feeding induced by decreased predation efficiency, and hence might hinder survival and growth.Keywords:
Turbidity
Population density
Tadpole (physics)
Hyla
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Controlled experiments were conducted by offering eggs, pre-setal trochophores, and setose trochophores of the polychaete Sabellaria cementarium to four planktonic predators, Pleurobrachia bachei (Ctenophora), Aequorea victoria (Hydrozoa), brach-yuran megalopa (Crustacea), and juvenile Sebastes spp. (Pisces). Each predator species captures prey with different mechanisms and the prey, while similar in size, differ in motility and presence or absence of setae.Consumption of non-motile eggs was greater by megalopa but less by A. victoria than consumption of pre-setal trochophores; it is suggested that differences in predator feeding mechanisms account for these differences. Setose trochophores were always consumed at lower rates than the younger stages. The evidence suggests that setae can function in larval defense against an array of predators with different feeding mechanisms, but that swimming may increase, decrease, or have no effect upon rate of predation, depending upon predator species.
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African clawed frog
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Intraguild predation
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When females anticipate a hazardous environment for their offspring, they can increase offspring survival by producing larger young. Early environmental experience determines egg size in different animal taxa. We predicted that a higher perceived predation risk by juveniles would cause an increase in the sizes of eggs that they produce as adults. To test this, we exposed juveniles of the mouthbrooding cichlid Eretmodus cyanostictus in a split-brood experiment either to cues of a natural predator or to a control situation. After maturation, females that had been confronted with predators produced heavier eggs, whereas clutch size itself was not affected by the treatment. This effect cannot be explained by a differential female body size because the predator treatment did not influence growth trajectories. The observed increase of egg mass is likely to be adaptive, as heavier eggs gave rise to larger young and in fish, juvenile predation risk drops sharply with increasing body size. This study provides the first evidence that predator cues perceived by females early in life positively affect egg mass, suggesting that these cues allow her to predict the predation risk for her offspring.
Cichlid
Avian clutch size
Paternal care
Ectotherm
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The study of predator effects is typically focused on the finalistic aspect of such interactions. Although direct predation is undoubtedly important, there is a far less studied realm that is equally, if not, more important than the direct effects of predation. Here we examine the indirect growth effects of predator and prey interactions by using predator stimuli experimentation. Juvenile rockfishes of the genus Sebastes were introduced to predation stimuli and within generation effects on growth were measured. Multiple experiments were run while manipulating visual chemical stimuli. It was discovered that the existence of predation stimuli resulted in a consistent negative growth effect on both body length and height in juvenile rockfish. Although sub-lethal predator effects significantly stunted growth in both mean body length and height, weight was not affected. It has been seen that juvenile survivorship can differentiate based on size relationships, and therefore stunted growth of juvenile fish by predation presence may lead to changes in survivorship. This study also reinforces the theory that energy allocation and metabolism may play a key role in the way that fish are affected by predation
Sebastes
Rockfish
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Habitat structural complexity can strongly affect biotic interactions. In particular, the intensity of predator-prey interactions can be mediated by habitat complexity because the effectiveness of predators often decreases in structurally complex habitats (Werner et al., 1983; Diehl, 1988; Babbitt and Jordan, 1996). Typically, increased habitat complexity reduces predation rates by providing refuges for prey or by decreasing predator efficiency (Crowder and Cooper, 1982; Savino and Stein, 1982; Werner et al., 1983). The role of habitat structure in mediating predatortadpole interactions is potentially important because predation is a significant source of mortality of anuran tadpoles (Calef, 1973; Heyer et al., 1975; Smith, 1983). Species breeding in permanent ponds display a wide array of anti-predator defenses for avoiding predation by fish (Formanowicz and Brodie, 1982; Kats et al., 1988; Lawler, 1989). In general, such defenses are lacking in species that breed in ephemeral ponds (Kats et al., 1988). In addition, activity rates of tadpoles in temporary ponds often are higher compared to species in permanent ponds (Woodward, 1983). Because many predators of tadpoles are gape-limited, rapid growth to a size refuge is an important mechanism for escaping predation (Crump, 1984; Travis et al., 1985; Richards and Bull, 1990; but see Crump and Vaira, 1991). For species breeding in ephemeral environments, rapid growth is also important for decreasing risk of desiccation (Wilbur, 1987; Newman, 1989). However, trade-offs exist between rapid growth and predator avoidance because actively foraging tadpoles are more likely to be detected by predators (Woodward, 1983; Werner and Anholt, 1993; Skelly, 1994). Although ephemeral ponds lack fish predators, these sites often contain aquatic insect predators that also are significant mortality agents (Smith, 1983; Wilbur and Fauth, 1990). Therefore, any mechanism that can reduce predator efficiency without decreasing foraging activity could enhance tadpole survival, particularly in ephemeral environments. Because structurally complex habitats can reduce predator foraging efficiency, complex environments may provide tadpoles with partial protection from predators, even when tadpoles are actively foraging. In this study we examine how habitat structure affects predation rates on squirrel treefrog (Hyla squirella) tadpoles. Hyla squirella is a common anuran in Florida, and is often numerically dominant in the ephemeral sites in which it breeds (Babbitt, unpubl. data). Hyla squirella tadpoles are active foragers even
Hyla
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Summary Some prey animals can actively escape from predators even after being captured, but knowledge of such behaviors is still limited, especially in vertebrates. Here, we report the unique active escape behavior of Japanese eel Anguilla japonica juveniles through the gill cleft of the predatory fish Odontobutis obscura . Of the 54 A. japonica juveniles captured by the predator, 28 escaped via the predator’s gill, and most escaped individuals survived afterwards. In all escaped individuals, their tails emerged first from the gill cleft of the predator, and then their whole bodies slipped out in a backward direction from the cleft. These findings indicate that A. japonica juveniles have the specialized antipredator tactic, which provides the basis for further investigation from behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives.
Predatory fish
Predator avoidance
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Although biologists routinely label animals as predators and prey, the ecological role of individuals is often far from clear. There are many examples of role reversals in predators and prey, where adult prey attack vulnerable young predators. This implies that juvenile prey that escape from predation and become adult can kill juvenile predators. We show that such an exposure of juvenile prey to adult predators results in behavioural changes later in life: after becoming adult, these prey killed juvenile predators at a faster rate than prey that had not been exposed. The attacks were specifically aimed at predators of the species to which they had been exposed. This suggests that prey recognize the species of predator to which they were exposed during their juvenile stage. Our results show that juvenile experience affects adult behaviour after a role reversal.
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Although biologists routinely label animals as predators and prey, the ecological role of individuals is often far from clear. There are many examples of role reversals in predators and prey, where adult prey attack vulnerable young predators. This implies that juvenile prey that escape from predation and become adult can kill juvenile predators. We show that such an exposure of juvenile prey to adult predators results in behavioural changes later in life: after becoming adult, these prey killed juvenile predators at a faster rate than prey that had not been exposed. The attacks were specifically aimed at predators of the species to which they had been exposed. This suggests that prey recognize the species of predator to which they were exposed during their juvenile stage. Our results show that juvenile experience affects adult behaviour after a role reversal.
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