Analysis and Transformations of Room‐Temperature Liquid Metal Interfaces – A Closer Look through Interfacial Tension
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Room-temperature gallium-based liquid metals (e. g. Galinstan) are emerging materials for a wide range of applications spanning from soft robotics to a medium for running chemical reactions. However, Galinstan suffers from rapid oxide formation at the surface, limiting its application. Similarly, this surface oxidation renders it difficult to determine the surface free energy of Galinstan. Herein, the interfacial properties of Galinstan in contact with argon, acid, base, water, and organic solvents were investigated, yielding kinetic information regarding the removal by acids and bases, knowledge about oxo-hydroxide/hydroxide species at the Galinstan/water interface, and an estimated value of the dispersive contribution of the surface free energy. The dispersive contribution of the surface free energy of Galinstan was calculated to be (239.7±9.1) mN/m, around 40 % of the total surface free energy. By employing the dispersive surface tension of Galinstan, the interfacial tension between a liquid and Galinstan can be easily obtained, facilitating the design and application of liquid metal-based devices.Keywords:
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Surface tension of fluids is crucial for multiphase systems and is often controlled during industrial processes by introducing surfactants. In this study, effect of various microwave radiation modes on surface tension of water was investigated as an alternative physical method to manipulate the surface tension without using chemicals. It is found that surface tension decreased quickly while temperature increased during microwave. Once the radiation was turned off, the temperature returned rapidly as expected. However, surface tension did not recover so much. The minimum surface tension after microwave radiation depended on the power. Moreover, a second radiation can have additional reduction on surface tension.
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Abstract This chapter discusses theoretical equations and models for analysing the surface tension of metallic liquids. It covers semi-empirical equations for the surface tension of liquid metallic elements; equations for the surface tension in terms of new dimensionless parameters; and temperature coefficients of the surface tension of liquid metallic elements. It also provides an assessment of surface tension models. It then looks at adsorption of solutes on liquid metallic surfaces; equations for the surface tension of binary liquid mixtures; methods of surface tension measurement; and experimental data for the surface tension of liquid metallic elements.
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In this chapter we discuss the reduction of surface and interfacial tension by surfactants. We consider the efficiency and effectiveness in surface tension reduction, liquid–liquid interfacial tension reduction, and dynamic surface tension reduction.
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Surface tension is an important quantity, both as physical and technological features. We applied the general form of Lennard-Jones potential model, LJ (m-n), and some thermodynamic arguments in the Kirkwood and Buff equation to calculate the surface tension of liquid cesium. To find out the surface tension in a wide temperature range, only pVT data are required. By this method, we investigated the influence of the potential model on the surface tension. For two selected potential models [LJ (6–3) and LJ (8.5–4)], the values of the calculated surface tension and the predicted surface energy agree with the experimental values.
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Surface tension of liquid metal varies in oxide condition for a short time since it is sensitive to surface oxidation. The temporally varying surface tension, i.e. dynamic surface tension, has great impact on many industrial processes relating to liquid metal. In this study, the dynamic surface tension of solder is measured by capillary jet method. Measured results indicate fast decrease from initial value to equilibrium surface tension for 2 - 4ms under the oxygen concentration of around 0.02%.
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Automatic interfacial tension measurement apparatus based on the drop volume method was developed so as to determine interfacial tension between two liquid phases rapidly and accurately. By this apparatus, for pure water and oil, constant values of equilibrium interfacial tension were obtained. Interfacial tension between aqueous solutions of surfactant and oil, and oil solutions of surfactant and water was measured. In all cases, the equilibrium tension values were determined with high reproducibility and reliability of their absolute values was confirmed. Interfacial tension between two liquid phases could be determined rapidly and automatically with high accuracy, and thus the present apparatus should prove quite using for examining various interfacial phenomena.
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The determination of surface tension of curved interfaces is a topic that raised many controversies during the last century. Explicit liquid-vapor interface modelling (ELVI) was unable up to now to reproduce interfacial behaviors in drops due to ambiguities in the mechanical definition of the surface tension. In this work, we propose a thermodynamic approach based on the location of surface of tension and its use in the Laplace equation to extract the surface tension of spherical interfaces from ELVI modelling.
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