Manipulation of Autophagy by Bacterial Pathogens Impacts Host Immunity
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Abstract:
Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process, degrading unnecessary or damaged components in the eukaryotic cell to maintain cellular homeostasis, but it is also an intrinsic cellular defence mechanism to remove invading pathogens. A crosstalk between autophagy and innate or adaptive immune responses has been recently reported, whereby autophagy influences both, innate and adaptive immunity like the production and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines or MHC class II antigen presentation to T cells. Pathogenic bacteria have evolved diverse strategies to manipulate autophagy, mechanisms that also impact host immune responses at different levels. Here we discuss the influence of autophagy on self-autonomous, innate and adaptive immunity and then focus on how bacterial mechanisms that shape autophagy may impact the host immune system.Keywords:
Crosstalk
The immune system is an incredible constellation of cells, tissues, organs and molecules that provides protection against a wide spectrum of pathogens and particles keeping us healthy within the challenging microbial environment. Immune system is capable of neutralizing most of the pathogenic attacks without leaving any trace of disease or abnormality in normal functionality of the body. However, some pathogens are strong enough to cause infectious diseases. In the battle against pathogens the immune system adopts two distinct pathways namely, innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Nonspecific innate immunity elicits the same generic response regardless of the pathogen and it mediated by key phagocytic cells. Adaptive immunity elicits pathogen specific immune responses carrying immunological memory. In therapeutic approaches the immune system is fine-tuned with the aid of external agents called immunomodulators. Immunomodulation refers to any alterations in the immune system involving induction, expression, amplification or inhibition of any part or phase in the immune response in order to achieve a better immune response. In clinical perspective immunomodulators appear in three categories including Immuno adjuvants, immune stimulants, and immune suppressants. A diverse array of synthetic and natural agents is applied in therapies. Plants are a rich source of bioactive substance exerting their effects on almost all the systems of the body while playing as immunomodulators. Thus the present review is focused on the immunemodulating activity of various plants in experimental perspective.
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Beyond structural and chemical barriers to pathogens, the immune system has two fundamental lines of defense: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the first immunological mechanism for fighting against an intruding pathogen. It is a rapid immune response, initiated within minutes or hours after aggression, that has no immunologic memory. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific; it has the capacity for memory, which enables the host to mount a more rapid and efficient immune response upon subsequent exposure to the antigen. There is a great deal of synergy between the adaptive immune system and its innate counterpart, and defects in either system can provoke illness or disease, such as inappropriate inflammation, autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiency disorders and hypersensitivity reactions. This article provides a practical overview of innate and adaptive immunity, and describes how these host defense mechanisms are involved in both heath and illness.
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Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic nonspecific intestinal inflammatory disease, including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Its pathogenesis remains not yet clear. Current researchers believe that after environmental factors act on individuals with genetic susceptibility, an abnormal intestinal immune response is launched under stimulation of intestinal flora. However, previous studies only focused on adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of IBD. Currently, roles of innate immune response in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation have also drawn much attention. In this study, IBD related innate immunity and adaptive immunity were explained, especially the immune mechanisms in the pathogenesis of IBD.
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Abstract Immune responses in higher organisms are triggered by the recognition of a limited diversity of microbiological products by cells of the innate or “natural” immune system. As a result, in addition to the direct protective effect of natural immunity, antigen-presenting cells, particularly dendritic cells, are activated to process and present an enormous number of peptide antigens to the T lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system. These, together with the B lymphocytes, then mediate specific immune responses and maintain acquired immunological memory. The aging immune system is less well able to cope with infectious disease than the youthful immune system; this review will briefly consider what is known of the age-associated alterations in innate immunity, and how these may also impact on adaptive immunity. J. Leukoc. Biol. 64: 703–712; 1998.
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Abstract Immune memory is well known as a signature of the adaptive immune system. Recently, enhanced responses to subsequent triggers are also observed in innate immune system, termed trained immunity (TI). Awakening of innate immune memory is required for host defense, such as anti‐pathogen and anti‐tumor responses. However, hyper‐reactivation of trained innate immune cells also gives rise to undesirable inflammation. Mucosa immune system serves as the first defense line against pathogens. Trained immunity of mucosal immune system is tightly associated with the outcomes of mucosal diseases. In this review, we discuss the role of trained immunity in mucosal‐associated diseases and the underlying mechanisms. We summarize the metabolic and epigenetic changes of trained immune cells and highlight their potential in clinical treatment. This article is categorized under: Infectious Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology
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The lung immune response consists of various cells involved in both innate and adaptive immune processes. Innate immunity participates in immune resistance in a nonspecific manner, whereas adaptive immunity effectively eliminates pathogens through specific recognition. It was previously believed that adaptive immune memory plays a leading role during secondary infections; however, innate immunity is also involved in immune memory. Trained immunity refers to the long-term functional reprogramming of innate immune cells caused by the first infection, which alters the immune response during the second challenge. Tissue resilience limits the tissue damage caused by infection by controlling excessive inflammation and promoting tissue repair. In this review, we summarize the impact of host immunity on the pathophysiological processes of pulmonary infections and discuss the latest progress in this regard. In addition to the factors influencing pathogenic microorganisms, we emphasize the importance of the host response.
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Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) is a common disease in men, which has a high incidence and seriously affects the quality of life of the patients. The possible pathogenic factors of the disease include urine reflux, hidden infection, central sensitization, oxidative stress, and abnormal immune response, among which abnormal immune response plays a significant role in its development and progression. Immune response involves innate immunity and adaptive immunity, and most previous studies focused on adaptive immunity. In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the role of the innate immune system in the pathogenesis of CP/CPPS. Studies show that mast cells, macrophages, Toll-like receptors and related cytokines in the innate immune system are all involved in the development and progression of CP/CPPS. As the innate immune system is the first barrier of the immune response of the body, studies on innate immunity will provide some new ideas for the diagnosis and treatment of CP/CPPS.
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1. Overview of the Immune Response 2. Signaling and Adhesive Molecules of the Immune System 3. Innate Immunity 4. Adaptive Immunity and the Detection of Infection by T Lymphocytes 5. Activation and Effector Actions of T Cells 6. B Cells and Humoral Immunity 7. Development of Lymphocytes and Selection of the Receptor Repertoire 8. Specialized Lymphocytes in Early Responses and Homeostasis 9. The Immune Response to Bacterial Infection 10. The Immune Response to Viral Infection 11. The Immune Response to Fungal and Parasitic Infection 12. Tolerance and Autoimmunity 13. Allergy and Hypersensitivity 14. Transplantation Immunology, Tumor Immunity and Vaccination
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Intrinsic immunity
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