Co-creation of market expansion in point-of-care testing in the United States: Industry leadership perspectives on the community pharmacy segment
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Snowball sampling
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After reviewing limitations of residential and ‘reputational’ samples of hard-to-reach populations, an alternative methodology is described. An initial sample is obtained through “site sampling”, involving finding respondents in eight settings based on the three criteria commercial/residential, inside/outside, and day/night. Once this zero-stage sampling is carried out, single- or multi-criterion snowball sampling in all eight sites can be carried out.
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The aim of the article is to compare the effectiveness of the snowball sampling and Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS) for research on migrants working in elderly care. Analyses are based on results of in-depth semi-structured individual interviews conducted among 42 migrants working as caregivers in the Opole region (Poland). This group can be considered as a “hidden population” because, due to the work they provide in the household, frequently illegally, they often demonstrate a strong desire to remain invisible. The methods were compared in terms of: (1) duration of the survey, (2) diversity of the sample, (3) difficulty in applying both sampling methods. In the conducted survey, snowball sampling made it possible to find and reach the required number of respondents faster than the RDS. Both groups differed in terms of gender (more men were recruited by snowball sampling), legality of employment (there were fewer lawfully employed in the RDS group) and average length of stay in Poland (migrants recruited by snowball sampling stayed in Poland for an average of 3.3 years and enrolled by RDS for 1.7 year). In both groups, recruitment was not self-driven by the chain of social networks of respondents. The reason was, inter alia, the structure of the social network of the migrant, which only to a small extent covered other migrants employed in senior care. The article closes the research gap for comparative research using snowball sampling and RDS on the same hard-to-reach population. The survey also attempts to verify to what extent face-to-face RDS can be used to survey hidden and rare populations scattered over a larger area than a city or agglomeration. Therefore the RDS method has been used to recruit respondents from the whole region without limiting the scope to one city or agglomeration.
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Nurse researchers and educators often engage in outreach to narrowly defined populations. This article offers examples of how variations on the snowball sampling recruitment strategy can be applied in the creation of culturally appropriate, community-based information dissemination efforts related to recruitment to health education programs and research studies. Examples from the primary author's program of research are provided to demonstrate how adaptations of snowball sampling can be used effectively in the recruitment of members of traditionally underserved or vulnerable populations. The adaptation of snowball sampling techniques, as described in this article, helped the authors to gain access to each of the more-vulnerable population groups of interest. The use of culturally sensitive recruitment strategies is both appropriate and effective in enlisting the involvement of members of vulnerable populations. Adaptations of snowball sampling strategies should be considered when recruiting participants for education programs or for research studies when the recruitment of a population-based sample is not essential.
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Snowball sampling is a commonly employed sampling method in qualitative research; however, the diversity of samples generated via this method has repeatedly been questioned. Scholars have posited several anecdotally based recommendations for enhancing the diversity of snowball samples. In this study, we performed the first quantitative, medium-N analysis of snowball sampling to identify pathways to sample diversity, analysing 211 reach-outs conducted via snowball sampling, resulting in 81 interviews; these interviews were administered between April and August 2015 for a research project on anti-dam movements in Southeast Asia. Based upon this analysis, we were able to refine and enhance the previous recommendations (e.g., showcasing novel evidence on the value of multiple seeds or face-to-face interviews). This paper may thus be of particular interest to scholars employing or intending to employ snowball sampling.
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Snowball sampling is generally seen as a highly effective sampling technique that allows for the study of difficult to reach or 'hidden' populations. It is also seen as a valuable tool for the study of particularly sensitive or private matters. As a result, it was chosen as the sampling method for a research study into illegal drug users over the age of 40 who are not in contact with the criminal justice authorities or treatment agencies regarding their use. However, there proved to be great difficulty in locating and interviewing potential participants using snowball sampling. Four reasons for this are proposed, and it is suggested that snowball sampling is prone to failure in particular circumstances. Thus, caution should be exercised when considering its adoption as a sample-building technique.
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Snowball sampling
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This paper explores snowball sampling, a recruitment method that employs research into participants' social networks to access specific populations. Beginning with the premise that research is ‘formed’, the paper offers one account of snowball sampling and using social networks to ‘make’ research. Snowball sampling is often used because the population under investigation is ‘hidden’ either due to low numbers of potential participants or the sensitivity of the topic, for example, research with women who do not fit within the hegemonic heterosexual norm. This paper considers how the recruitment technique of snowball sampling, which uses interpersonal relations and connections between people, both includes and excludes individuals. Following this, the paper contends that due to the use of social networks and interpersonal relations, snowball sampling (in)forms how individuals act and interact in focus groups, couple interviews and interviews. Consequently, snowball sampling not only results in the recruitment of particular samples, use of this technique produces participants' accounts of their lives. Doctoral research with (rather than on or for) 28 non‐heterosexual women is used to examine the inclusions and exclusions of snowball sampling and how interpersonal relations form research accounts.
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Field research can be associated with both qualitative and quantitative research methods, depending on the problems faced and the goals to be achieved. The success of data collection in the field research depends on the determination of the appropriate sampling technique, to obtain accurate data, and reliably. In studies that have problems related to specific issues, requiring a non-probability sampling techniques one of which is the snowball sampling technique. This technique is useful for finding, identifying, selecting and taking samples in a network or chain of relationships. Phased implementation procedures performed through interviews and questionnaires. Snowball sampling technique has strengths and weaknesses in its application. Field research housing sector become the case study to explain this sampling technique.
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Pandemic
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Womanist and feminist qualitative researchers continue to identify research methods and techniques that harness the power of social networking and personal connections while engaging with marginalized populations. Many have found that the use of snowball sampling allows increased access to individuals and groups that may otherwise remain inaccessible. The purpose of this article is to discuss the use of snowball sampling techniques within womanist and feminist research. The authors offer critical reflections of the use of this sampling technique as a tool that allows researchers access to “hidden” and marginalized populations. An example of the use of snowball sampling in a doctoral research project, which looks at the experiences of Black women faculty in New Mexico’s institutions of higher education, is provided. The article concludes with recommended strategies and key considerations about the use of snowball sampling in womanist research.
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