Development Progress of Fungicides against Botrytis cinerea
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The history and status quo of using fungicides and anti-microorganisms to control Botrytis cinerea at home and abroad were summarized. Then the mechanisms of action,biological activities and chemical structures of several types of main fungicides and anti-microorganisms,such as benzimidazoles,dicarboximides,pyrimidinamines,carbamates,strobilurin,phenylpyrroles,phenyl amines and cycloheximides,were introduced. The prevention suggestions of Botrytis cinerea resistance to fungicide were proposed.Keywords:
Strobilurin
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Botryotinia fuckeliana, teleomorph of Botrytis cinerea, is the causal agent of grey mould. This chapter reviews the most significant progress in the knowledge on genetic mechanisms underlying acquired resistance in B. fuckeliana to the main groups of fungicides used against grey mould, such as benzimidazoles, dicarboximides and pPhenylpyrroles, dichlofluanide, hydroxianilides (fenhexamid), succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor and quinone outside inhibitor fungicides. A synthesis of the current knowledge of genes and putative mutations responsible for resistance to various fungicides is reported.
Botrytis
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The resistance of Botrytis cinerea to fungicides,such as benzimidazoles,dicarboximides,N-phenylcarbamates and anilinopyrimidines and the resistance mechanism were reviewed.The biological characteristics and mechanism of new fungicides such as pyrroles,amides,pyridines and sterol biosynthesis inhibitors that could be used to control gray mould were introduced briefly.
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We evaluated the curative and preventive effects of 15 fungicides on gray mold disease, Botrytis cinerea, by means of the spore inoculation method with cucumber cotyledons as test material and paper discs for inoculation. Treatment with iprodione, fludioxonil, azoxystrobin, and polyoxin provided a strong curative effect at 24 h after spore inoculation, but no fungicide was effective at 48 h after spore inoculation. Iprodione, fludioxonil, mepanipyrim, fenhexamid, boscalid, penthiopyrad, and azoxystrobin produced a strong preventative effect in a spore inoculation experiment at 21 d after fungicide application. We also performed a greenhouse experiment and confirmed that fludioxonil, boscalid, and a mixture of iminoctadine albesilate and fenhexamid were effective against gray mold disease on tomato plants for 21 d. The efficacy of these fungicides in controlling gray mold disease on strawberry plants was then confirmed in a farmer's greenhouse. Our study demonstrates that gray mold disease must be controlled by preventive spraying with fungicides that have a long residual control effect, treatment with fungicide after infection has already occurred is unlikely to be successful.
Fludioxonil
Iprodione
Pyrimethanil
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Methods are presented for monitoring the sensitivity to anilinopyrimidine fungicides of Botrytis cinerea. The methods are intended for practical usc in thc implementation of antiresistance strategies. Methods for other groups of fungicides have already been published in Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 21 , 291‐354 and 22 , 297‐322.
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Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr., the causal agent of grey mould, is one of the most ubiquitous plant pathogens. The fungus is of high economic importance in various major crops and during transport and storage of agricultural products. Protectant fungicides such as chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, folpet or thiram are widely used for disease control. Since their introduction in the 1960S/1970s, systemic fungicides such as the benzimidazoles or dicarboximides have been used extensively. However, their effectivity is severely hampered by a rapid development of resistance to these fungicides.Antifungal activity of N1-substituted azoles was discovered in the late 1960s. Since then, a large number of azole derivatives have been developed as agricultural fungicides and antimycotics. The mode of action of these azoles is based on inhibition of the cytochrome P450-dependent sterol 14α-demethylase (P450 14DM ), an enzyme of the sterol pathway. By now, sterol demethylation inhibitors (DMIs) comprise about 35 commercial products and represent the most important group of systemic fungicides. DMI fungicides are commonly applied in control of rusts, powdery mildews and scabs. Only few of them are registered for control of B. cinerea . This is ascribed to a limited field performance for which the reasons are not evident. A replacement of dicarboximides or benzimidazoles by DMI fungicides would be attractive, since DMIs have a number of advantages over other fungicides including a relatively low resistance risk.The aim of the study described in this thesis is to identify factors involved in the limited field performance of DMI fungicides towards B. cinerea . The study is restricted to the largest group of DMIs, the triazoles. Before presenting results obtained in this study a literature review on the biology and control of B. cinerea , the mode of action and mechanisms involved in selective fungitoxicity of DMI fungicides, and factors responsible for discrepancies in laboratory and field pesticide performance is given ( chapter 1 ). Biological activity of triazoles towards B. cinerea was investigated in vitro with cell-free assays ( chapters 3 - 4 ) and toxicity assays ( chapters 3 - 7) and in vivo on different hosts ( chapter 5 ).The first step in the research presented in this thesis was the development of a cell-free assay for sterol synthesis from the model fungus Penicillium italicum ( Moniliaceae ) according to a method described for Aspergillus fumigatus ( chapter 2 ). Subsequently, the method developed was adopted for Botrytis cinerea ( chapter 3). This assay was used to study the relationship between chemical structure and biological activity of commercial and experimental triazoles and stereoisomers of cyproconazole,SSF-109 and tebuconazole towards B. cinerea ( chapter 4 ). On basis of these experiments intrinsic inhibitory activity of triazoles towards P450 14DM of the target pathogen was determined. in following experiments, factors which influence In vivo activity or field performance were Investigated. In vivo activity of triazole fungicides towards B. cinerea was tested on foliar-sprayed tomato plants and diptreated grape berries, and compared with that of selected benzimidazoles and dicarboximides ( chapter 5 ). in this context was also studied whether biological compounds could specifically antagonize activity of triazoles ( chapter 5 ). Variation in triazole sensitivity of the pathogen population was studied for field isolates (121) of B. cinerea collected during 1970 - 1992 in Europe and israel ( chapter 6 ). in this survey less sensitive populations were detected. A putative mechanism of resistance to DMI fungicides in field isolates with a relatively low sensitivity to DMIs was studied and compared with that operating in laboratory-generated DMI-resistant mutants ( chapter 7 ). Effects of inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration and multisite-inhibiting fungicides on accumulation of tebuconazole were tested to evaluate their potency as candidate compounds in synergistic mixtures with DMIs ( chapter 7 ). The development of synergistic mixtures may improve biological activity of DMI fungicides in control of B. cinerea.
Chlorothalonil
Myclobutanil
Pyrimethanil
Azole
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Cross-resistance
Botrytis
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Ornamental plant
Floriculture
Botrytis
Petunia
lilac
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Botrytis cinerea , the causal agent of grey mould in a broad range of crops, is considered a high‐risk plant pathogen for fungicide resistance development. The use of fungicide mixtures, particularly combinations with synergistic activity, can be a useful tactic to counteract resistance build‐up in pathogen populations. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of different ratios of two‐way mixtures of carbendazim, iprodione, kresoxim‐methyl, tebuconazole and penconazole on four B. cinerea isolates that were sensitive or resistant to benzimidazoles, dicarboximides and strobilurins. The isolates that were resistant to benzimidazoles and strobilurins had E198A and G143A mutations in β‐tubulin and cytochrome b genes, respectively. The mixtures had different effects on each of the isolates in vitro but, in 13 combinations, the synergistic effect was observed against all or three isolates. In greenhouse experiments, 11 fungicide combinations used in decreased (EC 75 ) concentrations showed the maximum control efficiency. The two follow‐up greenhouse experiments using six selected combinations revealed they were highly effective against additional isolates with various fungicide resistance profiles. The identified mixtures‐ratios have potential for use in grey mould management programs in the greenhouse.
Strobilurin
Iprodione
Tebuconazole
Myclobutanil
Cross-resistance
Fungal pathogen
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Fungicidal sprays are widely used for control of Botrytis fruit rot; however, the pathogen often develops resistance to frequently used fungicides. A 96-well plate micro-dilution broth bioassay developed for fungicide discovery was used to provide strawberry growers with a rapid assessment of the fungicide sensitivity of Botrytis isolates against 16 fungicides. Three sensitivity phenotypes were identified: benzimidazole and dicarboximide resistant, benzimidazole resistant and dicarboximide sensitive, and an intermediate response to both fungicides. Codon at position 198 in the β-tubulin gene confirmed benomyl resistance. This bioassay rapidly identifies fungicide resistance and allows growers to quickly adjust their disease management strategy.
Benomyl
Botrytis
Benzimidazole
Pesticide resistance
Fragaria
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