Temporal and small-scale spatial variation in grassland productivity, biomass quality, and nutrient limitation
Valentin H. KlausSteffen BochRuna S. BoeddinghausNorbert HölzelEllen KandelerSven MarhanYvonne OelmannDaniel PratiKathleen M. ReganBarbara SchmittElisabeth SorkauTill Kleinebecker
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Spatial heterogeneity
Growing season
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The dynamic equilibrium of aquatic ecosystems is the result of the interaction between multi-scale biological process and non-biological process,and it is easy to be disturbed.Based on an analysis of the interference factors and composition of the aquatic ecosystems,the ecosystems were classified into 4 scales from the angle of engineering,i.e.t he micro-scale,the small-scale,the medium-scale,and the macro-scale,and the temporal and spatial scales corresponding to the 4 scales were generalized.Furthermore,the relationships between the different scales were discussed,and the application and effectiveness of the temporal and spatial scales in ecological rehabilitation were introduced.
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It has recently been proposed that losses in farmland habitat heterogeneity may have been a primary driver of the profound declines exhibited by many farmland bird species in recent decades. However, it has yet to be demonstrated which facets of heterogeneity and what spatial scales are most important for birds. Here we analyse the relationship between abundance and features of landscape heterogeneity at three spatial scales (1, 9 and 25 km 2 ) for 32 bird species commonly associated with farmland. Heterogeneity was quantified using three contrasting indices reflecting 1) the spatial mixing of land uses, 2) variation in field sizes and 3) the density of field boundaries. The spatial mixing of land‐uses explained, on average, the most variation in, and was most likely to be positively associated with, abundance at all spatial scales. The majority of species (66–75%, depending on the spatial scale) were more common in heterogeneous landscapes overall; however, migrants, those under a high level of conservation concern and farmland specialist species tended to be less abundant in more heterogeneous landscapes at all scales. Ground‐nesting species were also more likely to be found in more homogeneous habitats than non‐ground‐nesters, but only at the finest spatial scale. Relationships between abundance and heterogeneity were generally consistent across spatial scales; however, species of high conservation concern had more variable associations compared with other species. These results highlight a potential role for farmland habitat heterogeneity in determining the abundance of many farmland species but suggest that population responses to an increase in heterogeneity would not be unanimously positive and would probably have negative impacts on some species, notably those that are already threatened.
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Breeding bird survey
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Abstract Spatial patterns are ubiquitous in nature, and ecological systems exhibit patchiness (heterogeneity) across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Landscape ecology is explicitly concerned with understanding how scale affects the measurement of heterogeneity and the scale(s) at which spatial pattern is important for ecological phenomena. Patterns and processes measured at fine spatial scales and over short time periods are unlikely to behave similarly at broader scales and extended time periods. An understanding of pattern-process linkages, a major research focus in landscape ecology, thus requires an understanding of how patterns change with scale, spatially and temporally. The development of methods for extrapolating information across scales is necessary for predicting how landscapes will change over time as well as for ecological forecasting. This chapter explores how scaling issues affect ecological investigations, discusses problems in identifying the correct scale for research, and outlines when and how ecological data can be extrapolated.
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Spatial heterogeneity plays a crucial role in affecting the ecologial processes in natural ecosystems, yet how spatial heterogeneity of herbaceous vegetation in desert-grassland transitional zone varies with increased spatial scale are still poorly known. We measured plant height, density, species richness and aboveground plant biomass (AGB) at the small (0.25 × 0.5 km), medium (0.5 × 0.5 km) and large (0.5 × 1 km) spatial scales in two adjacent plant communities (shrub- and grass-dominated) in desert steppe, Inner Mongolia. We used the geostatistical methods to examine the magnitude and degree of spatial heterogeneity of herbaceous vegetation characteristics with the increasing scale in both two plant communities. We found that compared to grass-dominated community, shrub-dominated community had the lower plant height and density at the large scale, the higher AGB at the small or medium scale, and the lower species richness at all three scales. Plant height, density and AGB in grass-dominated community were higher at the large scale than at the small scale, but they did not differ across three scales in shrub-dominated community. Species richness in both two communities were higher at the small scale than at the medium or large scale. All vegetation characteristics at three scales had the higher spatial heterogeneity in shrub- than in grass-dominated community. Spatial heterogeneity of all vegetation characteristics in shrub-dominated community decreased from the small to the large scale, while their spatial heterogeneity of plant height, density and species richness in grass-dominated community increased with the increasing scale. Our study highlights that shrub encroachment can simplify community composition and amplify spatial heterogeneity of herbaceous vegetation at multiple scales. Scale effects on spatial heterogeneity of herbaceous vegetation in desert steppe are dependent on plant community dominated by shrub or grass.
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Herbaceous plant
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The functional relationship between habitat utilization and landscape spatial heterogeneity is fundamental to understanding the spatial nature of animal distribution across scales. Although structural and functional properties of landscape spatial heterogeneity can have different consequences for animal species, few studies have explicitly considered both forms of heterogeneity, partly due to the lack of general methods for direct assessment of scale‐specific associations between variables. We present a wavelet‐based approach to evaluate the roles of structural and functional landscape spatial heterogeneity in animal space use at multiple spatial scales. As a case study, we examined scale‐specific space use patterns of American black bears Ursus americanus in response to structural and functional spatial heterogeneity as well as spatial patterns of vegetation age‐classes in a Canadian boreal forest. We found strong differences in the effects of structural and functional spatial heterogeneity and the scales at which they are associated with the patterns of habitat use by black bears. Functional heterogeneity alone affected space use at 800 and 1600‐m scales, but had significant effects when interacting with structural heterogeneity at 400, 800, and 1600‐m scales. Compared with male bears, female black bears were most sensitive to patterns of forage abundance at intermediate scales, or more specifically, in young and regenerating forests that provide abundant soft mast in boreal forests. Our study highlights the importance of accounting for scale‐dependent properties of (structural and functional) spatial heterogeneity in assessing the ecological effects of landscape components and the effectiveness of the wavelet transform technique in identifying such scale‐specific relationships.
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Temporal scales
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Spatial heterogeneity
Steppe
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Abstract Ecology has a rich history of studying ecosystem dynamics across time and space that has been motivated by both practical management needs and the need to develop basic ideas about pattern and process in nature. In situations in which both spatial and temporal observations are available, similarities in temporal behavior among sites (i.e., synchrony) provide a means of understanding underlying processes that create patterns over space and time. We used pattern analysis algorithms and data spanning 22–25 yr from 601 lakes to ask three questions: What are the temporal patterns of lake water clarity at sub‐continental scales? What are the spatial patterns (i.e., geography) of synchrony for lake water clarity? And, what are the drivers of spatial and temporal patterns in lake water clarity? We found that the synchrony of water clarity among lakes is not spatially structured at sub‐continental scales. Our results also provide strong evidence that the drivers related to spatial patterns in water clarity are not related to the temporal patterns of water clarity. This analysis of long‐term patterns of water clarity and possible drivers contributes to understanding of broad‐scale spatial patterns in the geography of synchrony and complex relationships between spatial and temporal patterns across ecosystems.
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Temporal scales
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