Regulators of Muscle Hypertrophy are Unaffected by Whey Protein and Casein Supplementation in Older Individuals
Matthew B. CookeAnnie AllisonClayton DorsaCarrie NixMatthew J. McPheetersJorge Luis Montenegro RaudalesBrian ShelmadineMike GreenwoodDarryn S. Willoughby
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PURPOSE: To compare whey and casein protein combined with a 12-week resistance training program on systemic and cellular mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle hypertrophy in older males. METHODS: Thirty-six non-resistance trained males (62.5±6.8 yrs, 177±6.32 cm, 95.25±16.9 kg) were randomized in a double blind manner to ingest either whey protein (WP) [20g/d WP + 5g carbohydrate (CHO)], casein protein (CAS) (20g/d CAS + 5g CHO) or maltodextrose placebo (CHO) [25g/d CHO] while participating in a supervised high intensity resistance training program (3 sets x 10 repetitions at 75% of 1RM), 3 days per week for 12 weeks. Testing sessions were completed prior to (0 weeks), 4 weeks, 8 weeks and 12 weeks post resistance training and supplementation. Each testing session included blood collection and vastus lateralis muscle biopsy. The blood serum was analyzed for insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), free testosterone and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and the muscle tissue for phosphorylated mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (c-Met). Data was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. RESULTS: A significant time effect was observed for serum free testosterone (0 weeks:14.26±9.78pg/ml vs. 12 weeks: 17.01±13.10pg/ml, p<0.05), with subsequent post-hoc analysis revealing significantly higher serum free testosterone levels at 4 weeks (18.61±15.20pg/ml, p=0.021) and 8 weeks (17.67±14.04pg/ml, p=0.028) compared to 0 weeks (14.26±9.78pg/ml). No time effects were evident for serum IGF-1 (0 weeks:0.841±0.487pg/ml vs. 12 weeks:0.824±0.448pg/ml, p=0.309), HGF (0 weeks:332.33±705.17pg/ml vs. 12 weeks:306.52±586.03pg/ml, p=0.483), or phosphorylated c-Met (0 weeks:0.109±0.242ng/mg vs. 12 weeks:0.038±0.039ng/mg, p=0.316). A significant group effect was observed for serum IGF-1 (p<0.05), with subsequent post-hoc analysis revealing significantly higher serum IGF-1 levels in the WP (0.684±0.381, p<0.05) and CAS groups (0.925±0.437, p<0.01) compared to CHO placebo (0.353±0.267). No other group or group by time interactions were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Whey protein and casein supplementation in conjunction with 12-weeks of resistance training were unable to enhance serum IGF-1 and testosterone levels and/or markers of satellite cell activation in older males.A VARIETY OF SPECIALIZED TRAINING TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN ADVOCATED AS A MEANS TO HEIGHTEN MUSCLE GROWTH. FORCED REPETITIONS/DROP SETS, SUPERSETS, AND HEAVY NEGATIVES, IN PARTICULAR, HAVE BEEN PURPORTED TO ENHANCE THE HYPERTROPHIC RESPONSE TO RESISTANCE EXERCISE. THIS ARTICLE WILL EXPLORE THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF THESE TECHNIQUES IN PROMOTING MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY AND PROVIDE AN INSIGHT INTO POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS TO RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMS.
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Casein is an excellent carrier for curcumin, but it is susceptible to hydrolysis in gastrointestinal digestion. This study intended to design a tailored nano-carrier composed of camel casein/bovine whey protein to protect casein and curcumin during digestion. After loading curcumin to the casein, whey protein was added to solution followed by heating at 80°C for 10 min in order to form casein/whey protein aggregations. Binding of curcumin to the solution was assayed by fluorescence. The results showed that in the existence of aggregated whey proteins, stability of curcumin against gastrointestinal condition significantly improved. These results attributed to the protective effect of the aggregated whey proteins during the gastric digestion and denaturation in the accessibility of pepsin to the casein. It was demonstrated that this method might be a good design to combat susceptibility of casein without the use of any synthetic material.
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This study investigates the influence of two formula diets containing 20 g/100 g diet of either whey protein concentrate or casein or Purina mouse chow, on the humoral immune responsiveness and dimethylhydrazine induced colon carcinogenesis in A/J mice. After 20 weeks of dimethylhydrazine treatment, the number of plaque forming cells per spleen, following intravenous inoculation with 5 X 10(6) sheep red blood cells, was nearly three times greater in the whey protein-fed group than in the casein-fed mice although both values were substantially below normal. After 24 weeks of dimethylhydrazine treatment the incidence of tumors in the whey protein-fed mice was substantially lower than that in mice fed either the casein or Purina diet. Similarly, the tumor area was less in the whey protein group in comparison to either the casein or Purina groups, with some difference between casein and Purina groups. Body weight curves were similar in all dietary groups. In conclusion, a whey protein diet appears to significantly inhibit the incidence and growth of chemically induced colon tumors in mice.
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The effect of preheat temperature (63 or 77 °C for 30 s; final heat 120 °C for 30 s) and casein to whey protein ratio on the physical characteristics of 3.3%, w/w, dairy protein beverages was investigated. Dispersions preheated at 77 °C had lower viscosity than dispersions preheated at 63 °C. Casein‐containing dispersions had significantly lower levels of α‐lactalbumin denaturation than whey protein‐only dispersions. A higher proportion of casein improved the thermal stability of protein dispersions. Overall, alteration of preheat temperature and casein to whey protein ratio can influence dairy beverage quality, with increasing levels of casein reducing physical changes due to heat treatment.
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The β-lactoglobulin will produce sulfhydryl when it is heated,which makes the reducibility of milk protein become higher.The reducibility of milk with different heat treatments,casein and whey was investigated by the protein reducibility substance measurement,and the PRS value to distinguish pasteurized milk was gained by comparing and analysing the PRS values.The main reason for the reducibility of milk protein is the thermal reaction between whey protein and casein.This is the base of further study for the heat denaturation of whey protein and the thermal reaction between whey protein and casein.
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Nutritional and biochemical properties of noncommercial whey protein have been described since 1950. However, comparisons between commercial whey protein for human consumption and casein are rarely found. The aim of this study was to compare biological quality of a commercial whey protein with casein and its effect on biochemical parameters of rats. Thirty-two weanling Fisher rats were divided into three groups and given the following diets: casein group, standard diet (AOAC); whey protein group, modified AOAC diet with whey protein instead of casein; and casein:whey group, modified AOAC diet with 70%:30% casein:whey. A protein-free group was used for determination of endogenous nitrogen losses. Net protein ratio, protein efficiency ratio, and true digestibility were determined, and blood was collected for biochemical analysis. When compared with casein, whey protein showed significant differences for all biological parameters evaluated, as well as for albumin, total protein, total cholesterol, and glucose concentrations. Replacing 30% of casein with whey protein did not affect these parameters. A positive relation among whey protein, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and paraoxonase activity was found. Hepatic or renal dysfunctions were not observed. In conclusion, in comparison with casein, commercial whey protein had higher values of biological parameters, and biochemical evaluation revealed it improved glycemic homeostasis, lipid status, and paraoxonase activity in rats.
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Dear Editor-in-Chief, We read the article of Buckner et al. (1), hoping to find new insights on resistance training. Unfortunately, the article is a restatement of information contained in previously published reviews from this group. Here are our major concerns: HYPERTROPHY AND STRENGTH GAINS Buckner et al. believe that high-volume phases are unnecessary. Initial alteration in body composition (including myofibrillar hypertrophy) is conceptually (along with the more important increased work capacity) a tenet of resistance training periodization. The paradigm of first developing muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) is not new (2) and has substantial theoretical support. We believe there is sufficient evidence indicating that hypertrophy resulting from resistance training, along with other factors, enhances maximum strength (3). The degree of enhancement depends on several factors, including training methods and trained state. Although we agree that the impact can be relatively small, particularly in early phases of training in inexperienced trainees compared with neurological adaptations, and so on, total hypertrophy (myofibrillar) resulting from long-term resistance training substantially contributes to strength development (3). Evidence from both early muscle activation and CSA studies and later studies (4) indicates that initial gains (up to 6–8 wk) in hypertrophy (myofibrillar) are small and likely do not contribute markedly to increased strength. This evidence also suggests that later alterations (~4–8 wk) in CSA (myofibrillar) can begin to contribute to alterations in strength and related characteristics. TRAINING VARIATION Buckner et al. (5) suggest that there is minimal evidence supporting the use of variation in resistance training programming or periodization. It should be noted that individuals cannot tolerate high-volume and/or heavy multijoint exercise loading for extended periods without experiencing nonfunctional overreaching or overtraining syndrome. Altering fitness phase order (therefore programming) produces different outcomes, sometimes subtle, but different (6). Researchers in early studies examined programming variation versus various constant repetition programming schemes and demonstrated that the variation groups produced superior adaptations. Furthermore, a recent systematic review indicates that using the same training stimulus for >6 wk, especially in trained subjects and athletes can result in a plateau in maximal strength (7). TRAINING TO FAILURE The majority of studies and reviews indicate training to failure is unnecessary, and loading does make a difference (7). Evidence from both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate selective hypertrophy can result from different loading schemes; training to failure, particularly with higher repetitions, tended to select type I motor units, whereas heavier loading and ballistic movements targeted type II motor units (8). These observations likely play an important role in the training and performance outcomes of athletes. MISREPRESENTATION OF THE LITERATURE Finally, selective use of references, careless editing of quoted statements, and what appear to be misrepresentations of literature in this review fosters misconceptions among readers. One particular example is that of Morehouse and Miller (2). We encourage interested readers to examine pages 59 to 60 and 244 to 246 to surmise what the authors actually stated; the meaning derived directly from the source text is substantially different than what was quoted. Hopefully, those interested will critically review the available literature in its entirety. Michael H. Stone Director, Exercise and Sport Science Lab Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Kent Adams Kinesiology Department Exercise Physiology Lab CSU Monterey Bay, CA Seaside, CA Caleb Bazyler Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Clive Brewer Director of Performance Columbus Crew Columbus, OH George Beckham Assistant Professor, Kinesiology Department CSU, Monterey Bay Seaside, CA Kevin Carroll Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Robert D. Chetlin Department of Sports Medicine Mercyhurst University Erie, PA Paul Comfort Directorate of Psychology and Sport University of Salford Salford, Greater Manchester, UNITED KINGDOM Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research Edith Cowan University Joondalup, AUSTRALIA Bret Comstock Department of Exercise Science Bloomsburg University Bloomsburg, PA Aaron Cunanan Sports Science Coordinator San Francisco Giants Brad DeWeese Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Jacob E. Earp University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI Sandor Dorgo Department of Kinesiology The University of Texas at El Paso El Paso, TX Steven J. Fleck FlecksRx LL Andrew C. Fry Exercise Physiology Graduate Program Dir. of Research, Research & Coaching Performance Team Director Jayhawk Athletic Performance Laboratory University of Kansas Lawrence, KS Andrew Galpin Co-Director: Center for Sport Performance Director: Biochemistry & Molecular Exercise Physiology Lab California State University Fullerton, CA John Garhammer Professor Emeritius California State University Long Beach, CA Daniel Gahreman College of Health and Human Sciences Charles Darwin University Darwin, NT, AUSTRALIA Casuarina NT, AUSTRALIA Stuart Guppy Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WESTERN AUSTRALIA G. Gregory Haff Professor of Strength and Conditioning Course Coordinator Masters of Exercise Science (Strength & Conditioning) Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WESTERN AUSTRALIA Keijo Häkkinen Neuromuscular Research Center Biology of Physical Activity Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences University of Jyväskylä, FINLAND Disa Hatfield Department of Kinesiology University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI Cody Haun Speed Center Sport Science Coordinator Exercise Science Lagrange College LaGrange, GA Guy Hornsby Coaching and Performance Science College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences West Virginia University Morganton, WV Chad Kersick Exercise Science Exercise and Performance Nutrition Laboratory School of Health Sciences Lindenwood University St. Charles, MO William J. Kraemer Department of Human Sciences Program Area: Kinesiology The Ohio State University Columbus, OH Hugh Lamont Department of Kinesiology Coastal Carolina University Conway, SC Jeff McBride College of Health Sciences Department of Health & Exercise Science Director: Neuromuscular & Biomechanics Laboratory Appalachian State University Boone, NC Satoshi Mizuguchi Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Robert U. Newton Exercise Medicine, Exercise Medicine Research Institute Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WESTERN AUSTRALIA Kyle Pierce Kinesiology and Health Science Louisiana State University at Shreveport Michael W. Ramsey Department of Sport, Exercise, Recreation, and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Nicholas Ratamess School of Nursing, Health, and Exercise Science The College of New Jersey Ewing, NJ Hugo Santana College of Education, Federal University of Mato Grosso Do Sul, Avenida Costa E Silva, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, BRAZIL Margaret E. Stone Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Timothy J. Suchomel Department of Human Movement Sciences Carroll University Dylan Suarez Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University Johnson City, TN Kyle Travis Sports, Exercise, Recreation and Kinesiology Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education East Tennessee State University, Johnson City Chris Taber Exercise Science College of Health Professions Sacred Heart University Fairfield, CT N. Travis Triplett Exercise Science Exercise Science Undergraduate Program Director Department of Health and Exercise Science Appalachian State University Boone, NC Jakob Vingren Chair Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion and Recreation Professor of Exercise Physiology and Biological Sciences Co-Director Applied Physiology Laboratory University of North Texas Denton, TX John Wagle Performance Science/Player Development Kansas City Royals Surprise, AZ Dan Wathen Athletic Trainer Emeritus Youngstown State University Youngstown, OH
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