INVESTIGATING ENTAMOEBA SPECIES INFECTING WILD AND SEMI-WILD ORANGUTANS
Peter StuartErhan YalcindagHelen C. Morrogh‐BernardC. M. NguyenWisnu NurcahyoRadka PeckováM. van NoordwijkIvona Foitová
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Presenter’s Email: peterdstuart@hotmail.com XXX (no-need to enter paper number) The aim of this study is to identify Entamoeba species infecting wild and semi-wild orangutans and any risk factors associated with infection. Due to habitat loss, the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) is currently listed as critically endangered and the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is listed as endangered. For the continued survival of orangutans, intensive management of the remaining populations is required. Key to the success of these management practices is preventing the introduction of infectious diseases to the remaining populations. Infection with Entamoeba is of concern as orangutans have been observed to be infected with Entamoeba species and infection has been linked to morbidity and mortality in primates. However, it remains to be determined if the species infecting orangutans is the pathogenic species Entamoeba histolytica. This study aims to identify the species of Entamoeba infecting orangutans by carrying out PCR assays on approximately 400 faecal samples collected by the Orangutan Health Project. These samples have been collected from 87 individual wild and semi-wild orangutans from 2004 to 2011 in two different sites in Sumatra (Bukit Lawang and Ketambe) and two sites in Kalimantan (Sebangau and Tuanan). Factors including age, sex, location and time of year will be investigated to identify any risk factors associated with infection. Results will be discussed. Financially supported by the UMI- Saving of the Pongidae Foundation and GA P505/11/1163.Keywords:
Pongo pygmaeus
Entamoeba coli
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Abstract The release of any species into a novel environment can evoke transmission of parasites that do not normally parasitize the host as well as potentially introducing new parasites into the environment. Species introductions potentially incur such risks, yet little is currently known about the parasite fauna of introduced primate species over the long term. We describe the results of long‐term monitoring of the intestinal parasite fauna of an unprovisioned, reproducing population of chimpanzees introduced 40 years earlier (1966–1969) onto Rubondo Island in Lake Victoria, Tanzania, a non‐native habitat for chimpanzees. Two parasitological surveys (March 1997–October 1998 and October 2002–December 2005) identified Entamoeba spp. including E. coli , Iodamoeba buetschlii , Troglodytella abrassarti , Chilomastix mesnili , Trichuris sp., Anatrichosoma sp., Strongyloides spp., Strongylida fam. gen. sp., Enterobius anthropopitheci , Subulura sp., Ascarididae gen. sp., and Protospirura muricola . The parasite fauna of the Rubondo chimpanzees is similar to wild chimpanzees living in their natural habitats, but Rubondo chimpanzees have a lower prevalence of strongylids (9%, 3.8%) and a higher prevalence of E. anthropopitheci (8.6%, 17.9%) than reported elsewhere. Species prevalence was similar between our two surveys, with the exception of Strongyloides spp. being higher in the first survey. None of these species are considered to pose a serious health risk to chimpanzees, but continued monitoring of the population and surveys of the parasitic fauna of the two coinhabitant primate species and other animals, natural reservoir hosts of some of the same parasites, is important to better understand the dynamics of host–parasite ecology and potential long‐term implications for chimpanzees introduced into a new habitat. Am. J. Primatol. 72:307–316, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Strongyloides
Entamoeba coli
Trichuris
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Malaria parasites, though widespread among wild chimpanzees and gorillas, have not been detected in bonobos. Here, we show that wild-living bonobos are endemically Plasmodium infected in the eastern-most part of their range. Testing 1556 faecal samples from 11 field sites, we identify high prevalence Laverania infections in the Tshuapa-Lomami-Lualaba (TL2) area, but not at other locations across the Congo. TL2 bonobos harbour P. gaboni, formerly only found in chimpanzees, as well as a potential new species, Plasmodium lomamiensis sp. nov. Rare co-infections with non-Laverania parasites were also observed. Phylogenetic relationships among Laverania species are consistent with co-divergence with their gorilla, chimpanzee and bonobo hosts, suggesting a timescale for their evolution. The absence of Plasmodium from most field sites could not be explained by parasite seasonality, nor by bonobo population structure, diet or gut microbiota. Thus, the geographic restriction of bonobo Plasmodium reflects still unidentified factors that likely influence parasite transmission.
Bonobo
Plasmodium (life cycle)
Pan paniscus
Gorilla
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Summary Parasites and infectious diseases have become a major concern in conservation biology, in part because they can trigger or accelerate species or population declines. Focusing on primates as a well‐studied host clade, we tested whether the species richness and prevalence of parasites differed between threatened and non‐threatened host species. We collated data on 386 species of parasites (including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths and arthropods) reported to infect wild populations of 36 threatened and 81 non‐threatened primate species. Analyses controlled for uneven sampling effort and host phylogeny. Results showed that total parasite species richness was lower among threatened primates, supporting the prediction that small, isolated host populations harbour fewer parasite species. This trend was consistent across three major parasite groups found in primates (helminths, protozoa and viruses). Counter to our predictions, patterns of parasite species richness were independent of parasite transmission mode and the degree of host specificity. We also examined the prevalence of selected parasite genera among primate sister‐taxa that differed in their ranked threat categories, but found no significant differences in prevalence between threatened and non‐threatened hosts. This study is the first to demonstrate differences in parasite richness relative to host threat status. Results indicate that human activities and host characteristics that increase the extinction risk of wild animal species may lead simultaneously to the loss of parasites. Lower average parasite richness in threatened host taxa also points to the need for a better understanding of the cascading effects of host biodiversity loss for affiliated parasite species.
Extinction (optical mineralogy)
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Presenter’s Email: e.yalcindag@gmail.com Several pathogenic
parasites threaten great apes survival. Parasites are primarily
transmited between captive, semi captive and wild ape
populations, between apes and other wildlife species and/or
humans and their livestock. Several viral diseases and
parasitic infections have been well-studied in African apes.
However, the distribution and transmission of parasites in
orangutans, (the only non-African great apes), are still
comparatively poorly understood. Recently, the total number and
distribution of orangutans has reduced drastically, primarily
due to habitat lost. Several studies have been done on captive
and semi-captive species. Information from wild populations is
still missing. The aim of this study is to identify
Strongyloides species infecting wild and semi-wild orangutans
by carrying out PCR assays on 410 fecal samples collected by
the Orangutan Health Project. These samples have been collected
from 110 wild individual orangutans from 2004 to 2011 in 4
different sites in Indonesia from both Sumatra and Borneo. We
will investigate; which Strongyloides species naturally infect
orangutans and compare parasitic infection observed in the two
Orangutans species, Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus. Factors
including age, sex, time of year and population structure will
be investigated to identify any risk factors associated with
infection. Results will be discussed. The study was financially
supported by the UMI - Saving of Pongidae Foundation and partly
by GA P505/11/1163.
Pongo pygmaeus
Captivity
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The objectives of this study were to compare diversity of
intestinal parasites of wild and semi-wild orangutans, under
factors influencing their intensity and occurrence. Eight
protozoan parasites species were found together with nine
metazoan parasites. The prevalence and its seasonal
distribution will be presented together with relationship
between parasites and season. The variability in parasite
community composition is driven by seasonal gradient. Higher
prevalence of metazoan parasites was found in semi-wild
orangutans than in wild ones. All protozoa recorded at a higher
prevalence in wild orangutans were non-pathogenic.
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Parasitology is increasingly employed by field primatologists to better understand the ecology and health of wild primate populations. This study examined the intestinal parasites of wild Bornean orangutans in Gunung Palung National Park. Gunung Palung is relatively pristine orangutan habitat, while many other orangutan sites consist of degraded secondary forest. As habitat disturbance and contact with humans are known to increase parasite infection in wild primates, the Gunung Palung population was predicted to have low overall parasite prevalence. Using direct smear and fecal concentration techniques on-site at the research camp, fecal samples were analyzed and parasites identified based on morphological characteristics viewed through a light microscope. At least one type of parasite species was detected in every sample (N=152) from every individual (N=38) that was tested. No other wild orangutan study thus far has reported 100% parasite prevalence. Strongyle -type eggs, Balantidium sp. and Entamoeba sp., each show remarkably high prevalence, approaching 100%. Also of note is the high prevalence ofTrichuris sp. in Gunung Palung compared to reports from other wild orangutan populations (20% at Gunung Palung, while never higher than 7% at other wild study sites). We discuss these surprising results and the potential influential factors, including methodological considerations and conservation issues. Various orangutan behaviors, including socializing and ground travel, may help explain these results as well, highlighting the importance of long-term monitoring of parasite infection.
Parasitology
Intestinal parasite
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The African painted dog (Lycaon pictus) is a highly endangered carnivore of sub- Saharan Africa, which in the last century has suffered a population decline of almost 99%. With only 3,000-5,500 animals remaining in the wild it is imperative to understand all threatening processes to which these animals may be exposed. The impact that parasites and other infectious agents have on wildlife has been increasingly recognized within conservation programs. Stressors such as human encroachment and habitat destruction are altering the incidence and effect that these pathogens have on wildlife populations, especially those endangered and under stress.
A parasitological study was conducted on captive and wild populations of the African painted dog over a three year period. Collaborations with three captive animal facilities and three in situ conservation groups within Africa allowed for a broad sample base from which variation in parasite prevalence and diversity could be identified. A combination of traditional microscopy techniques and molecular characterisation of parasite species were employed to obtain comprehensive data on the prevalence and diversity of gastrointestinal parasites observed in faecal samples collected from painted dogs.
Parasite prevalence within wild populations was 99% with a similar parasite community composition observed among all three wild populations. Five of the seven parasite genera observed in this study have not been reported before in this host. Additionally, molecular characterisations identified the potentially zoonotic species Giardia duodenalis, Ancylostoma braziliense and an ambiguous species of taeniid, all of which have also not been previously reported in this host.
The prevalence of parasites within captive populations was 15% with Giardia duodenalis being the dominant of the only two parasite species observed. The overall lack of prevalence and diversity of parasites observed in captive populations could be of significance for facilities involved in reintroduction programs. Particularly as immunologically naive captive animals may be unable to cope with exposure to a ‘natural’ parasite load in the wild environment, leading to an ultimate decrease in reintroduction success.
Gastrointestinal parasites detected in faecal samples from wild and captive populations of the African painted dog during this study
Parasite Taxon observed
Wild Captive
Taeniid Giardia
Ancylostoma Spirometra
Spirometra
Giardia
Coccidia
Sarcocystis
Filaroides
This study has obtained detailed baseline data of parasitism within populations of the African painted dog in captive and wild environments. The large proportion of new discoveries in this study demonstrates the paucity of information currently available on parasitism within this host species. It is hoped this information will assist in conservation efforts by a) recognising the challenges of parasite control in captive populations, particularly those involved in reintroduction and/or translocation programs, and b) being able to identify deviations from baseline parasite levels in wild populations which could be indications for emerging exotic and/or zoonotic disease.
Carnivore
Captive breeding
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Assessing parasite infection patterns helps us to understand
the ecology and health of wild primate populations. This study
monitored the intestinal parasites of Bornean orangutans in
Gunung Palung National Park over one year. While many orangutan
study sites consist of degraded secondary forest, Gunung Palung
is comparatively pristine primary rainforest. Given that
habitat degradation and contact with humans are known to alter
parasite infection in primates, the orangutan population in
Gunung Palung was predicted to display low parasite prevalence.
Fecal samples were analyzed using direct smear and fecal
concentration techniques. Parasites were identified based on
morphological characteristics viewed through a light
microscope. Each sample from every individual (N=38) that was
sampled contained at least one type of parasite species. These
results were surprising, as no other wild orangutan study thus
far has reported 100% parasite prevalence. Strongyle-type eggs,
Balantidium sp. and Entamoeba sp., each showed a prevalence
approaching 100%. Trichuris sp. also showed remarkably high
prevalence of 20%, while this genus is detected at or below 7%
prevalence at other study sites. We discuss the orangutan
behaviors, including socializing and ground travel, which may
play a role in shaping these patterns. Methodological
considerations and conservation issues may also help to explain
these results. Our findings emphasize the importance of
long-term monitoring of parasite infection to understand the
influential factors of infection patterns.
Intestinal parasite
Trichuris
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