Economic Valuation of the Environment: How Citizens Make Sense of Contingent Valuation Questions
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This study adopts a qualitative approach in order to investigate how people make sense of contingent valuation (CV) questions of a global environmental amenity. The objective is not only to capture people' s motivations and considerations of willingness to pay (WTP), but also to determine if they adequately comprehend an economic valuation of such public goods. The findings indicate that a large proportion of respondents do not interpret the valuation task, as intended. However, this lack of understanding is not always expressed, unless probed in relation to the elicitation question, and some people have the tendency to provide monetary estimates anyway, whatever meaning they attach to these. (JELH41)Keywords:
Amenity
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Measuring the Willingness-to-pay for a Horticulture Therapy Site Using a Contingent Valuation Method
Previous research has shown horticultural therapy (HT) provides both physical and mental benefits to those engaged in the gardening activities. Individuals' willingness-to-pay (WTP) for these benefits, however, is unknown because of the lack of well-defined markets for HT. As such, this study estimates individuals' mean WTP for a HT site in Busan, South Korea. Mean WTP is ≈$170/month U.S. per individual. WTP, however, shows a wide dispersion; the standard deviation of the estimated WTP is ≈$60 U.S. This study provides additional information to the policymakers of Busan concerning the issue of developing a horticultural site for its citizens. This information must be weighed against the costs of developing the site.
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조건부 가치측정법(CVM, contingent valuation method) 연구에서 제시금액에 대한 지불의사 거부자의 응답비율이 60~70% 수준을 상회하는 경우가 많다. 이와 같이 지불의사 거부자의 응답비율이 높을 경우 통상적인 CVM 모형에서는 음(-)의 지불의사액(WTP, willingness to pay)이 도출되거나 통계적으로 유의한 수준의 WTP를 도출하기 어렵다. 이와 관련하여 지불의사가 제시금액보다는 작지만 영(0)보다 큰 경우와 영(0)의 WTP로 나누어 분석하는 스파이크(spike)모형이 널리 활용되어 왔으며, 최근에는 WTP가 영(0)인 응답자들을 식별하여 이들을 분석에서 제외하고 중앙값을 기준으로 WTP를 산정한 후 전체 응답자 중 지불의사가 있는 응답자의 비율을 곱하는 절단된 중앙값(truncated median) 방식을 제안되어 활용되고 있다. 그러나 해당 CVM 분석방법론에 대한 학문적 검토가 아직 충분히 이루어지지 못하고 있는 상황이다. 이에 본 연구에서는 동일한 설문결과를 기준으로 spike모형과 truncated median 방식을 적용하여 분석결과를 비교·검토하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 본 연구에서는 응답자의 77.1%가 지불의사가 없다고 응답한 전라남도 지역의 공설운동장 건설사업 사례를 활용하였으며, 분석결과 truncated median 방식의 WTP 추정결과가 spike모형의 WTP 추정결과보다 낮은 것으로 나타났다.In CVM (contingent valuation method) studies, the response rate of ‘No’ response is often above the 60% to 70% level. A high response rate for a bid would make it difficult to derive negative or statistically significant levels of WTP (willingness to pay) from a typical CVM model. In this regard, a Spike model has been widely used. In this model, WTP is divided to smaller than the suggested amount but larger than zero and zero WTP. Recently, a truncated median model has been proposed to identify respondents whose WTP is zero, excluding them from the analysis, and then multiplying the proportion of the total respondents by the percentage of the paid respondents. However, there is not enough academic review of this methodology. In this study, the results of the analysis were compared and reviewed using the Spike and truncated median models based on the same survey results. To this end, the case of construction of a public playground in South Jeolla Province was used. According to the estimation results, WTP estimation result of the truncated median model was lower than the WTP estimation result of the Spike model.
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This paper sets out to estimate residents’ Willingness to Pay (WTP) for cleaning up road dust in urban areas of Vientiane, Laos. The analysis relies on the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and seeks to identify the factors affecting WTP. Based on a sample of 6,590 respondents, the results show a mean WTP of 7069 kip (USD0.86) per person per month. This amounts to 4.7% of residents’ average monthly income. Education and income have a statistically positive impact on WTP. Conversely, the number of children in family has a statistically negative impact on WTP. These results offer information to policy makers dealing with the dust problem on urban roads in Vientiane. Key words: Road dust; Contingent valuation method (CVM); Willingness to pay; Vientiane
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Abstract This paper reports on a contingent valuation (CV) study eliciting willingness to pay (WTP) for a public program for the preservation of lagoon, beach and infrastructure in the island of S. Erasmo in the Lagoon of Venice, Italy. We use split samples to investigate the effect of providing a summary of reasons for voting in favor and against the program before the referendum valuation question. Reminding respondents of the reasons for voting for or against the program increases WTP among less highly educated respondents, and decreases WTP among more highly educated respondents. Acknowledgements This Research was funded by a grant from the Consortium for the Management and Coordination of Research on the Venice Lagoon System (CORILA) within the Research Programme 2000 – 2004: Research Area 1.1: The Economic Evaluation of the Protection of the Environment. The authors are grateful to Richard Carson, Luigi Fabbris and Andrea Galvan for their invaluable help and comments. The authors are also indebted to the participants of the workshop on 'Information and technology' held in Copenhagen, Denmark, April 2003, and the participants of the Session on Contingent Valuation III at the Twelfth Annual EAERE Conference, Bilbao, Spain, June 2003. Notes The method of Contingent Valuation (CV) is a well-established technique used to assign a monetary value to non-market goods and services, such as environmental resources (Mitchell & Carson, Citation1989). CV is a survey-based technique, in that it asks individuals to report their willingness to pay for a specified improvement in environmental quality. Willingness to pay is defined as the amount of money that can be taken away from a person's income at the higher level of environmental quality to keep his utility constant. It is, therefore, the theoretically correct measure of the welfare change—and hence the benefits—associated with the change in environmental quality. No benefit-cost analyses have been conducted for public works of limited scope, but some rudimentary benefit-cost work has been conducted for public works and engineering feats with broader, system-wide impacts. For example, efforts have been made to list the possible categories of benefits associated with the construction and operation of MOSES (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico, originally the prototype mobile barrier against high tides used for experimental and study purposes between 1988 and 1992, and later the name of the entire project for mobile barriers at the Lagoon inlets; see www.salve.it), but we are not aware of actual benefit estimates, and the results of this study are unpublished. If g( ) is different from f( ), but the expected value of q1 is the same, then WTP' and WTP will generally differ if V is a non-linear function of environmental quality. This can be shown using Jensen's inequality. The situation with non-stochastic q0 and q1 is obtained as a special case by letting f( ) and g( ) be degenerate distributions. What actually constitutes 'new' or 'different' information depends on the researcher's judgement. Fischhoff & Furby (Citation1988) study the effect of different levels of information on WTP for atmospheric visibility. They point out that different investigators choose different details in describing atmospheric visibility and conclude that the details provided in the scenario vary because investigators have different intuitive theories of their respondents' construal processes. Ajzen et al. (Citation1996) argue that the effect of information depends on the degree of respondent involvement with the good being valued. They found that if the good was highly relevant to the respondents, the latter were not sensitive to irrelevant cues such as priming procedures. In conditions of high personal relevance, willingness to pay increased depending on the quality of the cognitive arguments. In cases of low personal relevance, affective priming cues had a greater effect on WTP than did cognitive arguments. In Italy, the Regions are jurisdictions that are roughly comparable to the States in the US or the Provinces in Canada. Venice is the capital city of the Veneto Region. The referendum question was as follows: 'Suppose that the only way to finance the program is through a one-time income tax to be paid in 2002 by the residents of the Veneto Region, and that a Regional referendum were on the ballot to decide on this matter. If there were a majority of no votes, the program would not be implemented. If there were a majority of yes votes, the program would be implemented, and would be funded through the one-time tax. If the cost of the program to your household, to be incurred in 2002 only, were estimated by a team of experts to be €FILL, would you vote in favor or against the project?" Our vote question does not include a reminder of the respondent's income constraint, a practice suggested by the NOAA Panel (Arrow et al. Citation1993) and adopted by many practitioners. Studies based on split samples (Loomis et al., Citation1994b; Loomis et al., Citation1996) have found no discernible effect of such budget reminders on WTP. When budget constraint reminders have been folded into an explicit warning about hypothetical bias, they were found in some cases to exacerbate the possible positive hypothetical bias (Aadland & Caplan, Citation2003a, Citationb). For these reasons, and because our pre-test respondents found the income reminder distracting and even annoying, we chose to omit it from the vote question. Use values refer to the utility from direct consumption of the good. Non-use values are generally classified into existence, option, and bequest. In particular, existence is due to the utility an individual derives from the awareness that a good exists, even though the individual does not use it and will not do so in the future. Option value derives from the possibility to use the good in the future, as individuals cannot forecast their future preferences. Finally, bequest value is about the utility from preserving the good for future generations. See Freeman (Citation1993). Two hundred pre-test interviews confirmed that S. Erasmo is virtually unknown to people living 50 km or farther from the Lagoon of Venice, but that these persons nevertheless hold positive values for the public program. Our focus groups confirmed that people did not find a national-level program credible for such small-scale works. Champ et al. (Citation1997) report similar problems with Wisconsin residents and a program that would remove roads from the Grand Canyon, choosing to abandon the referendum format, and to replace it with a voluntary donation mechanism. SeeChamp & Bishop (Citation2001) for a discussion of incentive compatibility issues associated with voluntary donations. In the original plan we envisioned a treatment-control experiment for the entire sample. However, due to budget considerations, the experimental treatment was restricted to the groups that live farthest from the Lagoon, which we expected to be more responsive to the treatment. About one-third of the respondents do not report his or her family income. The average household income of €21 000 is calculated for those respondents who did report their household income. Official statistics show that women account for 51.5% of the population in the region where the survey was conducted, which implies that our sample overrepresents women. We believe that this is due to the legal restrictions on calling times our survey firm was confronted with, which made it difficult to reach working men. Self-selection into the sample on the part of women would bias our estimates of WTP if the likelihood of participating in the survey is correlated with WTP for the program, and both depend on gender. We do not believe this to be the case. First, when the interviewer first spoke to the person who answered the telephone, the topic of the survey was not explicitly mentioned to the respondent. Second, our regressions indicate that WTP does not vary systematically with gender. (We note that a formal test of the hypothesis of self-selection of women into the sample would be possible if we also had information about the people that were contacted but declined to participate in the study. If so, we would estimate a system of two equations. The first would be a probit explaining that the participant is a female, and the second would be an equation for WTP, with a gender dummy included among the regressors. The error terms of the two equations would be allowed to be correlated. One would conclude that there is no evidence of self-selection of women into the sample if the correlation between the two error terms was found to be insignificantly different from zero. Unfortunately, we do not have the data required to carry out this test.) An analysis of the motivations for the responses to the payment questions (see Alberini et al., Citation2004) suggests that most of our respondents' answers were consistent with economic behavior, and that very few of our subjects protest the public works or the valuation exercise. It is important that the comparison be done across control subjects (respondents who live in Zone C, D and E, but were not slated for the treatment) and treatment subjects. Were we to compare all subjects who did not receive the caveat treatment with those who did receive it, we would be making inappropriate inference, since respondents who live in the city of Venice and in zones A and B are more likely to visit S. Erasmo and hence are more likely to have greater willingness to pay for the program. We work with the Weibull distribution because Weibull variates are defined on the positive semi-axis and have a flexible shape. We compared the fit of the Weibull log likelihood with normal, log normal and exponential log likelihoods, and found that the Weibull outperformed the log normal and exponential, and was comparable to the normal. The standard errors around the estimates were computed with a simulation-based approach (see Alberini & Cooper, Citation2000). Mean WTP is greater than median WTP when the distribution is positively skewed, as is the case here, because the shape parameter of the Weibull, θ, is less than 3.6. Because the estimate of mean WTP is entirely driven by the upper tail of the distribution, median WTP is used as a robust lower bound for mean WTP. In conventional cost-benefit analyses, the total benefits of the project are obtained as mean WTP times the total number of beneficiaries. We present below total benefits computed in this fashion, as well as a more conservative, but statistically robust, benefit figure based on median WTP. Median WTP can also be interpreted as the largest tax amount that would still result in a majority approval of the project. Since only about 8% of our respondents had visited S. Erasmo in the last 12 months, we included both those persons that had visited the island in the previous year and those persons who had taken trips to the Lagoon, without necessarily visiting S. Erasmo, in this group. The Wald statistics for comparison of users and non-users are 10.26 for mean WTP and 46.09 for median WTP. The Wald statistics for comparison of potential users and non-users are 11.03 for mean WTP, 101.51 for median WTP. Under the null hypothesis of no difference, each Wald statistic is distributed as a chi square with one degree of freedom. The critical limit at the 5% significance level is 3.84. We created a dummy variable, PCAPINCMISS that takes on a value of 1 when the respondent did not answer the income question. Missing values in the income variable were then replaced with zeros, and both the income variable and PCAPINCMISS were included in the right-hand side of the WTP equation. The coefficient on PCAPINCMISS, therefore, captures any systematic differences in WTP between those respondents who did and did not report income. The coefficient on PCAPINC, the income variable, tells us how WTP varies with income, conditional on information on income being available. A similar procedure was followed for MALE and AGE. Based on a simple model with just the intercept and the CAVEAT dummy, we calculate that if the CAVEAT treatment changes mean/median WTP by 18%, the power of the t statistic for its coefficient is 0.15. The power of the t statistics increases to 0.43 if the CAVEAT treatment changes mean/median WTP by one-third, and to 0.93 if it changes mean/median WTP by one-half. We checked for a quadratic effect of age by adding aged squared in the right-hand side of the WTP regression, but the coefficient on this variable was insignificant. Table 8 assumes that the effects of CAVEAT, if any, are limited to the right-hand side of log WTP, while the error term ε in equation (3) is homoskedastic, its scale, θ, being constant and unaffected by CAVEAT. To check for a more complex effect of CAVEAT, we re-estimated the log WTP equation allowing for CAVEAT to enter in both λi and the scale parameter of ε: θ = exp (α 0 + α 1 · CAVEAT). Parsimonious specifications of this model were well behaved, but failed to detect any significant effect of CAVEAT on the scale of ε. α 1 was negative, implying that providing subjects with a reminder of the reasons for voting in favor or against the program tends to reduce the variance of log WTP, but this effect was very small (α 1 = − 0.05) and statistically insignificant. With broader specifications, the maximum likelihood routine often failed to converge. We also tried log normal specification for ε in lieu of the type I extreme value, but not even in this case did CAVEAT have a significant coefficient. To illustrate, if 20% of the households in zone A in our sample were users or potential users, and Nj is the number of households residing in this zone as per the most recent Census (2001), the total number of households with users or potential users in zone A is computed to be Nj U = Nj × (0.20). The total number of households in zone A without users would be Nj NU = Nj × (0.80). An anonymous reviewer suggests that an even more conservative calculation attaches a value of zero for those persons who declined to participate in the survey. Since these people account for about 37% of those contacted, this conservative recalculation results in total benefits equal to €25, 669, 207 (based on median WTP figures for the other 63% of users and non-users).
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Abstract This paper presents results of a contingent valuation study based on responses from household members living in Winterswijk, The Netherlands. The respondents are asked to report their preferences on a range of willingness to pay (WTP) for agri-environmental schemes (AES) provided by farmers. Estimated WTP based on both two-step Heckman selection and Tobit model is reported. Results indicate that the willingness to pay appears to depend positively on the level of trust and membership status of household members towards environmental organizations.
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Willingness to accept
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This paper presents a method of quantifying variation in quality in an amenity as a component of an hedonic property amenity valuation. The paper considers the residential land amenity of an ocean view, a situation where there is typically substantial variation in the quality of the view between sites. The method is effectively a scoring system based on three sub‐characteristics of the ocean view. It is illustrated by application to a coastal housing subdivision in Western Australia. The results provide an estimate of the increase in the sale price of a site attributable to the quality of the site’s ocean view. The method has a potential role in coastal land use management decisions.
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Residential Property
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Abstract We examine how location in a gated community affects the value of a single-family home and the valuation of a beach. Using data on 2,358 sales on barrier islands near Charleston, South Carolina, the empirical results indicate that homeowners pay a premium of 18.6% for a property in a gated community. The value of location near a beach is greater in gated than nongated communities. (JEL R21, Q51)
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Abstract Failure of land markets to account for environmental amenity benefits may lend support to public policies to protect agricultural land. The contingent valuation method is employed to estimate willingness to pay for such amenities in Greenville County, South Carolina. Marginal household amenity benefits were estimated at $.06 per thousand acres using a payment card in a mail survey with 53 percent response. Bid payment vehicle was found not to significantly influence bids received. The informational structure of the contingent market was found to influence valuation responses, reinforcing the hypothesis that respondents react to alternative contingent market structures. The relationship between contingent market structure and directional effects upon responses is an important area for future research.
Amenity
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Payment card
Agricultural land
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Η αποτίμηση μη αγοραίων δημόσιων αγαθών αποτελεί πρόκληση για δύο λόγους: (α) οι κλασικές μέθοδοι αποτίμησης λειτουργούν σε εμπορεύσιμα αγαθά και δεν είναι κατάλληλες για τα μη εμπορεύσιμα καθώς η αρχή προσφοράς - ζήτησης δεν ισχύει και (β) η ποικιλομορφία και η αφηρημένη φύση τέτοιων αγαθών δυσχεραίνουν κάθε προσπάθεια ποσοτικοποίησης οποιασδήποτε ιδιότητάς τους, ενώ πολλές φορές το ίδιο το αγαθό δεν γίνεται άμεσα αντιληπτό από τον πληθυσμό που απολαμβάνει την προσφερόμενη ωφέλεια. Στην παρούσα έρευνα έγινε μια προσπάθεια τροποποίησης και εφαρμογής κατάλληλων μεθοδολογικών εργαλείων στην αποτίμηση τέτοιων αγαθών για χρήση σε τεχνικοοικονομικές αξιολογήσεις προγραμμάτων αναβάθμισης του περιβάλλοντος. Σχεδιάστηκαν και μελετήθηκαν αρκετά προγράμματα σχετικά με την αναβάθμιση αστικού περιβάλλοντος, προστασίας και αναβάθμισης μνημείων πολιτισμικής κληρονομιάς, αντιμετώπισης της ηχορύπανσης, εξυγίανσης και αναβάθμισης υγροβιότοπων και του περιβάλλοντος χώρου, αναβάθμισης και απορρύπανσης λιμένων και παρακείμενων οικισμών. Η διαφορετική φύση των προγραμμάτων αυτών και η ποικιλία των διαφορετικών παραμέτρων που επηρεάζουν τα υπό εξέταση συστήματα επιβάλλουν μια ευέλικτη και εύχρηστη γενική μεθοδολογία που να μπορεί να προσαρμοστεί κατά περίπτωση. Η Μέθοδος Υποθετικής Αξιολόγησης (Contingent Valuation Method, CVM) είναι μία από τις ευρέως γνωστές μεθοδολογικές προσεγγίσεις για την αποτίμηση μη αγοραίων αγαθών στο πλαίσιο της Πειραματικής Οικονομικής(Experimental Economics).Η αποτίμηση της προθυμίας των πολιτών να πληρώσουν για να αποκτήσουν ένα ‘χαμένο’ δημόσιο αγαθό μετρήθηκε με την μέθοδο ‘Willingness to Pay’ (WTP). Η μέθοδος αυτή χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην αποτίμηση της βιομηχανικής ρύπανσης στις περιοχές της Ελευσίνας, των Αγίων Θεοδώρων Κορινθίας και της Χαλκίδας. Οι ερωτώμενοι στην περιοχή της Ελευσίνας δείχνουν πιο ευαισθητοποιημένοι και η αντίδραση αυτή σχετίζεται με τον διττό κοινωνικοοικονομικό χαρακτήρα της περιοχής που περιλαμβάνει ένα αρχαιολογικό περιβάλλον και ένα βιομηχανικό περιβάλλον. Η ίδια μέθοδος χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την αποτίμηση της αισθητικής ρύπανσης που προκαλούν οι απαξιωμένες προσόψεις των οικοδομών στο ιστορικό κέντρο της Αθήνας και ιδίως στην περιοχή του Θησείου που έχει ιστορικό και τουριστικό ενδιαφέρον. Οι ερωτώμενοι επιζητούν την βελτίωση της υφιστάμενης κατάστασης με ήπια μέτρα και δεν προτιμούν τις ριζικές μεταβολές στο δομημένο περιβάλλον της περιοχής. Σχετικά με την ανακατασκευή και ανάπλαση μνημείων πολιτισμικής κληρονομιάς, η διαθεσιμότητα των εθελοντών υπολογίστηκε με μία τροποποιημένη μορφή της CVM. Μετρήθηκε η εθελοντική προσφορά εργασίας (Willingness to Participate, WTPar) από στρατιώτες για την ανάπλαση του αρχαίου Δίολκου του Ισθμού της Κορίνθου και του αρχαιολογικού χώρου του Ηραίου στη Σάμο. Οι στρατιώτες υπηρετούσαν την υποχρεωτική τους θητεία και δεν είχαν κόστος ευκαιρίας του χρόνου εργασίας. Διατίθενται κατά μέσο όρο να προσφέρουν 1,5 ημέρες εθελοντικής εργασίας. Η πληροφόρηση σχετικά με την ιστορία του εκάστοτε μνημείου επηρεάζει θετικά την απόκριση των ερωτώμενων. Οι κάτοικοι κατά μήκος της περιφερειακής οδού Θεσσαλονίκης εμφανίστηκαν διατεθειμένοι να δώσουν χρήματα (WTP) προκειμένου να κατασκευαστούν ηχοπετάσματα κατά μήκους των δύο ρευμάτων κίνησης της οδού για την αντιμετώπιση της ηχορύπανσης.Αγρότες από την Θεσσαλία και την ευρύτερη περιοχής της Θεσσαλονίκης (ηπειρωτικές περιοχές) και των νησιών της Σάμου και της Ικαρίας (νησιωτικές περιοχές) ερωτήθηκαν πόσο διατίθενται να αποζημιωθούν προκειμένου να διευκολύνουν τη συλλογή και τη μεταφορά της απορριπτόμενης βιομάζας από τις αγροκαλλιέργειές τους. Η αποτίμηση αυτή έγινε με την μέθοδο ‘Willingness to Accept’ (WTA). Κατά μέσο όρο η υπολογιζόμενη τιμή ήταν 2€ ανά τόνο βιομάζας, με σημαντικό ποσοστό των ερωτώμενων να απαντά πως θα συμμετείχε ακόμα και δωρεάν. Επιπροσθέτως, πραγματοποιήθηκε ανάλυση της αγοράς της απορριπτόμενης βιομάζας με οικονομικά κριτήρια Ζήτησης – Προσφοράς σύμφωνα με το ‘Θεώρημα του Ιστού της Αράχνης’ (Cobweb Theorem). Για κάθε περίπτωση, που μελετήθηκε όλα τα κόστη και τα οφέλη μπορούν υπολογιστούν ή εκτιμηθούν. Η εκτίμηση αυτή μπορεί να αποτελέσει σημαντική ένδειξη για το όφελος προγραμμάτων αναβάθμισης αστικού και περιαστικού περιβάλλοντος ακόμα κι όταν αυτό αφορά σε αγαθά μη εμπορεύσιμα και δύσκολα αποτιμήσιμα όπως η αισθητική του περιβάλλοντος, η μείωση της ηχορύπανσης, η αναβάθμιση ιστορικών μνημείων, η προστασία και αναβάθμιση ενός υγροβιότοπου, η απορρύπανση και αισθητική βελτιστοποίηση ενός λιμανιού. Με τον τρόπο αυτό αν και είναι δύσκολο να μπει μια τιμή στην αξία ενός μνημείου ή στην ομορφιά μιας γειτονιάς, μπορεί να αποτιμηθεί η αξία της αναβάθμισής τους καθώς και το κόστος των απαραίτητων για αυτήν την αναβάθμιση προγραμμάτων. Η μεθοδολογία που αναπτύχθηκε κατά την εκπόνηση της διδακτορικής διατριβής μπορεί να εφαρμοσθεί στον προσδιορισμό της συνάρτησης ζήτησης για ένα μη αγοραίο αγαθό μέσω της παραμέτρου‘Willingness to Pay’, της συνάρτησης προσφοράς μέσω της παραμέτρου ‘Willingness to Accept’και της συνάρτησης εθελοντικής προσφοράς εργασίας μέσω της ερώτησης ‘Willingness to Participate’.΄Η αξιολόγηση των προγραμμάτων αναβάθμισης με την παρούσα μεθοδολογία αναμένεται να βοηθήσει την αυτοδιοίκηση στην επιλογή κατάλληλων προγραμμάτων καθώς και την ευαισθητοποίηση των πολιτών.
Contingent valuation
Willingness to accept
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