Temperature dependence of gain and excess noise in InAs electron avalanche photodiodes
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Measurement and analysis of the temperature dependence of avalanche gain and excess noise in InAs electron avalanche photodiodes (eAPDs) at 77 to 250 K are reported. The avalanche gain, initiated by pure electron injection, was found to reduce with decreasing temperature. However no significant change in the excess noise was measured as the temperature was varied. For avalanche gain > 3, the InAs APDs with 3.5 µm i-region show consistently low excess noise factors between 1.45 and 1.6 at temperatures of 77 to 250 K, confirming that the eAPD characteristics are exhibited in the measured range of electric field. As the dark current drops much more rapidly than the avalanche gain and the excess noise remains very low, our results confirmed that improved signal to noise ratio can be obtained in InAs eAPDs by reducing the operating temperature. The lack of hole impact ionization, as confirmed by the very low excess noise and the exponentially rising avalanche gain, suggests that hole impact ionization enhancement due to band "resonance" does not occur in InAs APDs at the reported temperatures.Keywords:
APDS
Impact ionization
Avalanche diode
Single-photon avalanche diode
Electron avalanche
Avalanche breakdown
We report the avalanche properties of InAs avalanche photodiodes (APDs), extracted from avalanche gain and excess noise measurements performed under pure electron and pure hole injections, and from Monte Carlo simulations. For a given avalanche width electron initiated gain was found to be significantly higher than conventional InP and Si APDs. Hole initiated multiplication was negligible confirming the electron only multiplication process within the field range covered. Excess noise measurements showed the excess noise factors of less than 2, providing further evidence of the ideal avalanche properties in InAs. Monte Carlo simulations performed provided good agreement to experimental results.
APDS
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche diode
Electron avalanche
Avalanche breakdown
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Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche diode
Impact ionization
Electron avalanche
Single-photon avalanche diode
Reverse bias
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This work simulated the avalanche characteristics of 4H- and 6H-SiC avalanche photodiodes (APDs) at 0.1 µm, 0.2 µm and 0.3 µm avalanche widths. A Monte Carlo model with random ionization path length techniques is developed to simulate mean multiplication gain and excess noise factor in thin SiC APDs. Mean multiplication gain, breakdown voltage and excess noise factor are simulated based on the electric field dependent impact ionization coefficients with the inclusion of dead space effect. Our results show that hole-initiated impact ionization gives high multiplication gain with low excess noise factor in both devices. We observed that dead space effect is more pronounce in thin structure since it covers a significant portion of the avalanche region. In thick device structure, a high breakdown voltage is observed. A comparison between these two polytypes shows that 4H-SiC provides high multiplication gain with low excess noise factor than 6H-SiC.
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Impact ionization
Avalanche diode
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche breakdown
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The hole dominated avalanche multiplication characteristics of 4H-SiC Separate Absorption and Multiplication avalanche photodiodes (SAM-APDs) were determined experimentally and modeled using a local multiplication model. The 0.5x 0.5mm2 diodes had very low dark current and exhibited sharp, uniform breakdown at about 580V. The data agree with modeling result using extrapolated impact ionization coefficients reported by Ng et al. and is probably valid for electric fields as low as ~0.9MV/cm at room temperature provided that both the C-V measurements and electric field determination in this work are correct. The packaged devices demonstrate a positive temperature coefficient of breakdown voltage for temperatures ranging from 100K to 300K which is a desired feature for extreme environment applications.
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Avalanche breakdown
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche diode
Impact ionization
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Abstract Using a hard dead space impact ionization model, the dependence of breakdown probabilities on overbias ratio in single photon avalanche diodes is investigated theoretically in a variety of semiconductor materials for the simple case of constant electric field, that is, in a p+-i-n+ diode structure. By using avalanche widths of 2 μm, the effects of dead space are minimized so that the breakdown probability results are determined primarily by the enabled ionization coefficients of the materials. The results illustrate how the slope of breakdown probability with overbias ratio is affected by the enabled ionization coefficients ratio and by the field dependences of ionization coefficients, which should be taken into account when choosing semiconductor materials for single photon avalanche diodes.
Avalanche diode
Impact ionization
Avalanche breakdown
Single-photon avalanche diode
Electron avalanche
Zener diode
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The avalanche breakdown and Geiger mode of the silicon p-n junction is considered. A precise physically motivated method is proposed for determining the avalanche breakdown voltage of silicon photomultipliers (Si PM). The method is based on measuring the dependence of the relative photon detection efficiency (PDErel ) on the bias voltage when one type of carriers (electron or hole) is injected into the avalanche multiplication zone of the p-n junction. The injection of electrons or holes from the base region of the Si PM semiconductor structure is performed using short-wave or long-wave light. At a low overvoltage (1-2 V) the detection efficiency is linearly dependent on the bias voltage; therefore, extrapolation to zero PDErel value determines the Si PM avalanche breakdown voltage with an accuracy within a few millivolts.
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Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche diode
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The effects of avalanche region width, ionization coefficient ratio, and dead space on the breakdown time and timing jitter of a single-photon avalanche diode are investigated. Using a random ionization path length model, the breakdown time and the timing jitter are shown to decrease with breakdown probability, but increase with avalanche region width, decreasing ionization coefficient ratio, and ionization dead space. The model is used to compare the dependence of avalanche timing performance in Si and InP on avalanche region width.
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche diode
Avalanche breakdown
Impact ionization
Electron avalanche
Photon Counting
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Important avalanche breakdown statistics for Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs), such as avalanche breakdown probability, dark count rate, and the distribution of time taken to reach breakdown (providing mean time to breakdown and jitter), were simulated. These simulations enable unambiguous studies on effects of avalanche region width, ionization coefficient ratio and carrier dead space on the avalanche statistics, which are the fundamental limits of the SPADs. The effects of quenching resistor/circuit have been ignored. Due to competing effects between dead spaces, which are significant in modern SPADs with narrow avalanche regions, and converging ionization coefficients, the breakdown probability versus overbias characteristics from different avalanche region widths are fairly close to each other. Concerning avalanche breakdown timing at given value of breakdown probability, using avalanche material with similar ionization coefficients yields fast avalanche breakdowns with small timing jitter (albeit higher operating field), compared to material with dissimilar ionization coefficients. This is the opposite requirement for abrupt breakdown probability versus overbias characteristics. In addition, by taking band-to-band tunneling current (dark carriers) into account, minimum avalanche region width for practical SPADs was found to be 0.3 and 0.2 μm, for InP and InAlAs, respectively.
Avalanche diode
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche breakdown
Electron avalanche
Zener diode
Impact ionization
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A physically motivated method is proposed for determining the avalanche breakdown voltage of silicon photomultipliers (SiPM). The method is based on measuring the dependence of the relative photon detection efficiency (PDErel) on the bias voltage when one type of carriers (electron or hole) is injected into the avalanche multiplication zone of the p−n junction. The injection of electrons or holes from the base region of the SiPM semiconductor structure is performed using short-wave or long-wave light. At a low overvoltage (1–2 V) the detection efficiency is linearly dependent on the bias voltage; therefore, extrapolation to zero PDErel value determines the SiPM avalanche breakdown voltage with an accuracy within a few millivolts.
Silicon Photomultiplier
Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche diode
Single-photon avalanche diode
Overvoltage
Biasing
Electron avalanche
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InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiodes (APDs) have been widely used for high-speed optical receivers because of their advantages of high avalanche gain and high sensitivity. Generally, avalanche photodiodes are operated at near the breakdown voltage to improve gain characteristic. However, process variations of APD can cause the fluctuations of characteristics, such as avalanche gain, breakdown voltage, and dark current, which degrade proper operating characteristics of APDs. In this paper, the characteristic variations of InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiodes are investigated using commercial TCAD tool.
APDS
Avalanche diode
Single-photon avalanche diode
Avalanche breakdown
Photodiode
Indium gallium arsenide
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