Spermine-induced negative inotropic effect in isolated rat heart, is mediated through the release of ATP
Gustavo Guevara‐BalcázarEnrique QuerejetaOskar Nuevo-AdallaAlejandra Orozco-GuillénIván Rubio-GayossoJose R Hernández-CastilloMiguel Zamora-GarzaGuillermo Ceballos
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Polyamine
Strains of yeast have been constructed that are unable to synthesize ornithine and are thereby deficient in polyamine biosynthesis. These strains were used to develop a protocol for isolation of mutants blocked directly in polyamine synthesis. There were seven mutants isolated that lack ornithine decarboxylase activity; these strains exhibited greatly decreased pool levels of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine when grown in the absence of polyamines. Three of the mutants lack S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase activity; polyamine limitation of a representative mutant resulted in an accumulation of putrescine and a decrease in spermidine and spermine. When the mutants were cultured in the absence of polyamines, a continuously declining growth rate was observed.
Polyamine
Ornithine decarboxylase antizyme
Auxotrophy
Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase
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The biochemistry and biological function of the naturally occurring polyamines, putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, have been reviewed with special reference to animal organisms. These compounds are universally distributed in all living material. Their biosynthesis from ornithine and methionine is accurately controlled and may fluctuate according to the metabolic needs of the cell. Polyamines strongly and specifically interact with nucleic acids in vitro. It appears that under physiological conditions a substantial portion of cellular polyamines is noncovalently bound to nucleic acids and nucleic acid-containing structures such as ribosomes. Polyamines are able to stimulate protein and ribonucleic acid synthesis in vitro. In several systems characterized by rapid growth polyamines and ribonucleic acid accumulate in parrallel. Evidence that polyamines may have an essential role in protein and/or nucleic acid synthesis is substantiated by recent observations on polyamine-deficient bacterial mutants, although no specific function has been established with certainty as yet. Some clinical applications of polyamine research related to cancer are also discussed briefly.
Polyamine
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An extreme thermophile, Thermus thermophilus, produces 16 different polyamines including long-chain and branched-chain polyamines. The composition and content of polyamines in the thermophile cells change not only with growth temperature but also with pH changes. In particular, cell growth decreased greatly at alkaline medium together with significant changes in the composition and content of polyamines. The amounts of tetraamines (spermine and its homologs) markedly decreased at alkaline pH. Thus, we knocked out the speE gene, which is involved in the biosynthesis of tetraamines, and changes of composition of polyamines with pH changes in the mutant cells were studied. Cell growth in the ΔspeE strain was decreased compared with that of the wild-type strain for all pHs, suggesting that tetraamines are important for cell proliferation. Interestingly, the amount of spermidine decreased and that of putrescine increased in wild-type cells at elevated pH, although T. thermophilus lacks a putrescine synthesizing pathway. In addition, polyamines possessing a diaminobutane moiety, such as spermine, decreased greatly at high pH. We assessed whether the speB gene encoding aminopropylagmatine ureohydrolase (TtSpeB) is directly involved in the synthesis of putrescine. The catalytic assay of the purified enzyme indicated that TtSpeB accepts agmatine as its substrate and produces putrescine due to the change in substrate specificity at high pH. These results suggest that pH stress was exacerbated upon intracellular depletion of polyamines possessing a diaminobutane moiety induced by unusual changes in polyamine biosynthesis under high pH conditions.
Thermus thermophilus
Polyamine
Agmatine
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Bacillus alcalophilus, an obligately alkalophilic bacterium, grow at pH 11 with an intracellular pH greater than 9.5. Polyamines are positively charged at physiological pH, but less than 50% of polyamines will be charged at pH 9.5 and above. In view of the importance of polycationic nature of polyamines in their physiological functions, it is of interest to study the polyamine metabolism in B. alcalophilus, an unusual organism that grow at very high pH. Spermidine is the major polyamine in this organism, accounts for more than 90% of total polyamine. The level of spermidine fluctuates between 10 to 30 nmol per mg protein during growth. In contrast, putrescine and spermine levels stay constant during entire period of growth. No ornithine decarboxylase (DC) activity can be detected in B. alcalophilus under all conditions examined. When (/sup 3/H)arginine was added to the bacterial culture, the distribution of radioactivity in polyamine pool was 3% for putrescine, 94% for spermidine, and 3% for spermine, suggesting the presence of arginine pathway for polyamine biosynthesis. B. alcalophilus appears to possess a polyamine transport system that is Na/sup +/-dependent. Putrescine uptake in B. alcalophilus is sensitive to the inhibition of gramicidine S (10 ..mu..M) and valinomycin (2..mu..M).
Polyamine
Arginine decarboxylase
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Polyamine
Polyamine oxidase
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Several strains of the sulfur-dependent archaebacterium, Sulfolobus, were analyzed for their polyamine content. Caldine (norspermidine), spermidine, and thermine were found to be major components in all of the cells tested. The most abundant polyamine in all cultures examined was spermidine. The Langworthy strain had the highest spermine content, whereas S. acidocaldarius strain no. 7 was devoid of this polyamine. Cultures of strain no. 7 grown at 70°C were rich in spermidine and caldine (triamines) and the thermine: spermidine ratio was much lower than that of cultures grown at 78°C. Equal amounts of thermine and spermidine were present in strain DSM 1616. Preincubation of Langworthy strain extracts at 10°C did not overcome the requirement for polyamines in protein synthesis. Putrescine exerted a concentration-dependent inhibition of the spermine-induced stimulation of protein synthesis at 70°C. Increasing concentrations (6 and 9 mM) of spermine and thermine progressively inhibited poly(U)-dependent phenylalanine incorporation at 45°C to about the same extent, whereas the same concentrations of these polyamines had little effect on the reaction at 70°C. Although 3 mM spermine had only a slight stimulatory effect on the attachment of phenylalanine to tRNA at 65°C, this polyamine had a pronounced effect on the formation of 70S ribosomes in a standard buffer containing 10 mM Mg2+. Increasing the Mg2+ concentration to 30 mM in the absence of spermine was even more effective in causing the reassociation of subunits to form 70S particles.
Polyamine
Strain (injury)
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Polyamine oxidase
Polyamine
Ornithine decarboxylase antizyme
Catabolism
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Several biochemical parameters, including that of polyamine content, accompanying the growth of the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans were studied. At all stages of growth under autotrophic conditions, the organisms were found to be rich in spermidine and lacking in spermine, as is typical of procaryotic organisms. The cells were quite low in putrescine, and no unusual polyamine was observed to be present as a major component. Conjugated polyamines were not detected in the cultures. At maximal culture density, the levels of spermidine, DNA, RNA, protein, and chlorophyll were also maximal. Shortly after the inception of the stationary phase, the spermidine content of the cells was the first parameter observed to decrease in cultures which were shortly to become yellow. Spermidine lost from the cells was not recovered in the medium in a free or conjugated form. This indication of degradation of spermidine was studied by the addition of polyamines to growing cultures. Exogenous spermidine and spermine were found to be metabolized rapidly by the organisms, of which diaminopropane was one product. Putrescine was found to be markedly toxic, whereas spermidine, some other triamines, and spermine were much less toxic.
Polyamine
Polyamine oxidase
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The polyamines putrescine, spermidine and spermine represent a group of naturally occurring compounds exerting a bewildering number of biological effects, yet despite several decades of intensive research work, their exact physiological function remains obscure. Chemically these compounds are organic aliphatic cations with two (putrescine), three (spermidine) or four (spermine) amino or imino groups that are fully protonated at physiological pH values. Early studies showed that the polyamines are closely connected to the proliferation of animal cells. Their biosynthesis is accomplished by a concerted action of four different enzymes: ornithine decarboxylase, adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, spermidine synthase and spermine synthase. Out of these four enzymes, the two decarboxylases represent unique mammalian enzymes with an extremely short half life and dramatic inducibility in response to growth promoting stimuli. The regulation of ornithine decarboxylase, and to some extent also that of adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, is complex, showing features that do not always fit into the generally accepted rules of molecular biology. The development and introduction of specific inhibitors to the biosynthetic enzymes of the polyamines have revealed that an undisturbed synthesis of the polyamines is a prerequisite for animal cell proliferation to occur. The biosynthesis of the polyamines thus offers a meaningful target for the treatment of certain hyperproliferative diseases, most notably cancer. Although most experimental cancer models responds strikingly to treatment with polyamine antimetabolites—namely, inhibitors of various polyamine synthesizing enzymes—a real breakthrough in the treatment of human cancer has not yet occurred. It is, however, highly likely that the concept is viable. An especially interesting approach is the chemoprevention of cancer with polyamine antimetabolites, a process that appears to work in many experimental animal models. Meanwhile, the inhibition of polyamine accumulation has shown great promise in the treatment of human parasitic diseases, such as African trypanosomiasis.
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1,3-Diaminopropane has been identified as the major polyamine of Acanthamoeba culbertsoni. N-acetylputrescine and spermidine were present in appreciable amounts and putrescine as well as N-acetylspermidine were also detected, but spermine was absent. Changes in polyamine levels were observed during the growth of amoebae. Ornithine decarboxylase activity was detected in cell-free extracts but there was very low activity of arginine and lysine decarboxylases. A potent polyamine oxidase was demonstrated which preferentially acted on N8-acetyl-spermidine as the substrate while N1-acetylspermidine was a poor substrate; free polyamines did not serve as a good substrate for this enzyme. Active uptake of polyamines by the amoebae was also demonstrated.
Polyamine oxidase
Polyamine
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