Calcium oscillations in higher plants
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DECIPHER
Calcium Signaling
Stimulus (psychology)
Signalling
ENCODE
All living things have evolved to sense changes in their environment in order to respond in adaptive ways. At the cellular level, these sensing systems generally involve receptor molecules at the cell surface, which detect changes outside the cell and relay those changes to the appropriate response elements downstream. With the advent of experimental technologies that can track signalling at the single-cell level, it has become clear that many signalling systems exhibit significant levels of 'noise,' manifesting as differential responses of otherwise identical cells to the same environment. This noise has a large impact on the capacity of cell signalling networks to transmit information from the environment. Application of information theory to experimental data has found that all systems studied to date encode less than 2.5 bits of information, with the majority transmitting significantly less than 1 bit. Given the growing interest in applying information theory to biological data, it is crucial to understand whether the low values observed to date represent some sort of intrinsic limit on information flow given the inherently stochastic nature of biochemical signalling events. In this work, we used a series of computational models to explore how much information a variety of common 'signalling motifs' can encode. We found that the majority of these motifs, which serve as the basic building blocks of cell signalling networks, can encode far more information (4-6 bits) than has ever been observed experimentally. In addition to providing a consistent framework for estimating information-theoretic quantities from experimental data, our findings suggest that the low levels of information flow observed so far in living system are not necessarily due to intrinsic limitations. Further experimental work will be needed to understand whether certain cell signalling systems actually can approach the intrinsic limits described here, and to understand the sources and purpose of the variation that reduces information flow in living cells.
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A wide range of Ca2+ signalling systems deliver the spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals necessary to control the specific functions of different cell types. Release of Ca2+ by InsP3 (inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate) plays a central role in many of these signalling systems. Ongoing transcriptional processes maintain the integrity and stability of these cell-specific signalling systems. However, these homoeostatic systems are highly plastic and can undergo a process of phenotypic remodelling, resulting in the Ca2+ signals being set either too high or too low. Such subtle dysregulation of Ca2+ signals have been linked to some of the major diseases in humans such as cardiac disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and Alzheimer's disease.
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Abstract Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium (Ca 2+ ) signalling are interconnected in the perception and transmission of environmental signals that control plant growth, development and defence. The concept that systemically propagating Ca 2+ and ROS waves function together with electric signals in directional cell‐to‐cell systemic signalling and even plant‐to‐plant communication, is now firmly imbedded in the literature. However, relatively few mechanistic details are available regarding the management of ROS and Ca 2+ signals at the molecular level, or how synchronous and independent signalling might be achieved in different cellular compartments. This review discusses the proteins that may serve as nodes or connecting bridges between the different pathways during abiotic stress responses, highlighting the crosstalk between ROS and Ca 2+ pathways in cell signalling. We consider putative molecular switches that connect these signalling pathways and the molecular machinery that achieves the synergistic operation of ROS and Ca 2+ signals.
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A large number of ion channels, enzymes, pumps and binding proteins participate in the generation of intracellular Ca2+ signals and their decoding. Ca2+ signalling takes place in the form of oscillations, waves and sparks. Such Ca2+ signals occur in almost all cells and regulate diverse cell functions. Perturbation of Ca2+ signalling leads to disease states. Drugs that act on Ca2+-signalling are commonly used in treatment of several diseases. Different molecules involved in Ca2+ signalling are potential targets for development of new therapies. Thus, basic research in Ca2+ signalling increases our understanding of the pathogenesis of diseases at a molecular level and the likelihood of development of new therapeutic modalities.
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