Nucleus Symbiosis Hypothesis Formation of Eukaryotic Cell Nuclei by the Symbiosis of Archaea in Bacteria
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Eukaryotic cell
Archaea is a group of single-cell, microscopic organisms that have no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. They have many similar structural and metabolic features with bacteria, but they also have several critical differences. Many archaea and bacteria have a syntrophic relationship where they coexist and benefit each other in floc particles, biofilm, and sludge. Archaea that survive in low pH conditions are known as acidophiles, while those that survive in high pH conditions are known as alkalophiles. Sulfolobus is an example of an archaea that prefers high temperatures and extremely low pH. There are two major archaeal kingdoms with species that contribute to the stabilization of wastes: Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. Crenarchaeota contains thermophilic organisms, acidophilic organisms, and ammonia-oxidizing archaea. Euryarchaeota contains halophilic organisms, thermophilic organisms, and methanogens. Archaea also have novel enzymes and metabolic pathways including sulfur pathways involved in a variety of dissimilatory and assimilatory forms of sulfur metabolism.
Crenarchaeota
Euryarchaeota
Thaumarchaeota
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Compartment (ship)
Eukaryotic cell
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Eukaryotic cell
Cell membrane
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Abstract The Archaea are a group of microbes that form one of three domains of life on Earth. Studies with isolated strains have revealed an archaeal metabolic diversity rivaling that found within the domain Bacteria, and molecular surveys have revealed that archaea occupy a broader range of environments than was suspected based on the physiology of isolates. Archaea are also the most abundant and active microbial component in some environments, typically where their adaptations to chronic energy stress provide selective advantage over bacteria. Ongoing studies of uncultured archaea are likely to reveal important impacts on Earth's elemental and energy cycles. Key concepts Comparison of small subunit ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene sequences and other cellular characteristics revealed that Archaea are a distinct group of microbes and one of three domains of life on Earth. The majority of archaeal diversity is composed of two kingdoms: the Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. Most of the cultured archaea are ‘extremophiles’, or organisms that are adapted to living under extreme environmental conditions. The common ecological factor among the Archaea is their propensity to thrive under conditions of chronic energy stress. The ‘uncultured majority’ refers to the abundant, widespread, and highly diverse groups of archaea that currently lack cultured isolates. The metabolic functions of some uncultured archaea have been revealed by combining molecular, biochemical and geochemical techniques.
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Crenarchaeota
Three-domain system
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The cell nucleus as the controller of all genetic and physiological activities within the cell,is the most prominent marker of eukaryotic cells.The formation of the cell nucleus is the key event during the origin of eukaryotic cells.The first appearance of the primitive cell nucleus indicates the emergence of the first eukaryotic cell.The research on the origin of the cell nucleus not only enriches the modern cell biology and evolutionary biology,but might also even influence the further development of the molecular cell biology by stimulating cell biologists to consider the significance of the viewpoint of evolution to cell researches. However,for a long time,on the origin of the cell nucleus there were only several reckless and assumptions and a few earnest efforts which were unsuccessful or only indirectly related to the formation of the nucleus.One of the main reasons for this situation seems to be the lack of a practical way for the study. Through searching for a long time we found a way.The essential point of the way is to consider the comprehension of the primitive nucleus as the key link for understanding the whole process of and early evolution of the cell nucleus.We have already known that the prokaryotic ancestor of eukaryotes must be one kind of ancient archaea (Li,1999).The primitive cell nucleus should be an intermediate link between the archaeal nucleoid and the typical cell nucleus.In order to obtain some features of the original nucleus,We'd better study the most primitive protists we can find today and investigate all aspects of their cell nucleus thoroughly.Then,combined with the present knowledge on archaea we would be able to propose a hypothetical model for the primitive cell nucleus,and arrange various possible experiments to examine it from various aspects in order to test,to modify,to improve it,or replace it with a new one.Along this way,we would finally obtain a convincing model of the primitive cell nucleus.Then,combined the model with the present knowledge on archaea,protists and eukaryotic cells we could establish an all sided hypothesis on the origin and early evolution of the cell nucleus for further examinations.Further along this way we would closer and closer approach the real evolutionary process. This is a realistic way.Along this way we have already negated the dinoflagellate nucleus model and the related hypothesis and established the diplomonad nucleus model for the primitive cell nucleus and proposed a rather complete theory on the origin and early revolution of the cell nucleus,including the origins of nuclear envelope,eukaryotic chromosomes and nucleolus (Li,1999).
Nucleoid
Eukaryotic cell
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The cell nucleus as the controller of all genetic and physiological activities within the cell,is the most prominent marker of eukaryotic cells.The formation of the cell nucleus is the key event during the origin of eukaryotic cells.The first appearance of the primitive cell nucleus indicates the emergence of the first eukaryotic cell.The research on the origin of the cell nucleus not only enriches the modern cell biology and evolutionary biology,but might also even influence the further development of the molecular cell biology by stimulating cell biologists to consider the significance of the viewpoint of evolution to cell researches.However,for a long time,on the origin of the cell nucleus there were only several reckless and assumptions and a few earnest efforts which were unsuccessful or only indirectly related to the formation of the nucleus.One of the main reasons for this situation seems to be the lack of a practical way for the study.Through searching for a long time we found a way.The essential point of the way is to consider the comprehension of the primitive nucleus as the key link for understanding the whole process of and early evolution of the cell nucleus.We have already known that the prokaryotic ancestor of eukaryotes must be one kind of ancient archaea (Li,1999).The primitive cell nucleus should be an intermediate link between the archaeal nucleoid and the typical cell nucleus.In order to obtain some features of the original nucleus,We d better study the most primitive protists we can find today and investigate all aspects of their cell nucleus thoroughly.Then,combined with the present knowledge on archaea we would be able to propose a hypothetical model for the primitive cell nucleus,and arrange various possible experiments to examine it from various aspects in order to test,to modify,to improve it,or replace it with a new one.Along this way,we would finally obtain a convincing model of the primitive cell nucleus.Then,combined the model with the present knowledge on archaea,protists and eukaryotic cells we could establish an all-sided hypothesis on the origin and early evolution of the cell nucleus for further examinations.Further along this way we would closer and closer approach the real evolutionary process.This is a realistic way.Along this way we have already negated the dinoflagellate nucleus model and the related hypothesis and established the diplomonad nucleus model for the primitive cell nucleus and proposed a rather complete theory on the origin and early revolution of the cell nucleus,including the origins of nuclear envelope,eukaryotic chromosomes and nucleolus (Li,1999).
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Eukaryotic cell
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Abstract The cell nucleus is a characteristic feature of most eukaryotic cells. It is a double‐membrane‐bound organelle that contains the genetic information of the cell packaged in the form of chromatin.
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Eukaryotic cell
Feature (linguistics)
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What makes a cell? ‘The nature of cells’ considers the cell ℄ the smallest unit of life ℄ by looking at basic cell characteristics, membranes and cell walls, and the interior of the cell. The distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is explained. The main characteristic of eukaryotic cells is their ability to alter their shape, components, and metabolism to fulfil a particular task — to differentiate — a facility which allows them to come together and form multicellular tissues, to combine those tissues into organs, and then form an entire organism such as a human being. Finally, in vitro studies, where plant or animal cells are grown in laboratories, are discussed.
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Eukaryotic cell
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Plant cell
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Reciprocal
Eukaryotic cell
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Endosymbiosis
Eukaryotic cell
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