Model-based analysis of the likelihood of gene introgression from genetically modified crops into wild relatives
Colin ThompsonBen J. P. ThompsonPeter K. AdesRoger CousensPauline Garnier‐géréKerry A. LandmanEd NewbiginMark A. Burgman
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Introgression
Outcrossing
Contact zones provide an excellent arena in which to address questions about how genomic divergence evolves during lineage divergence. They allow us to both infer patterns of genomic divergence in allopatric populations isolated from introgression and to characterize patterns of introgression after lineages meet. Thusly motivated, we analyze genome-wide introgression data from four contact zones in three genera of lizards endemic to the Australian Wet Tropics. These contact zones all formed between morphologically cryptic lineage-pairs within morphologically defined species, and the lineage-pairs meeting in the contact zones diverged anywhere from 3.1 to 5.8 million years ago. By characterizing patterns of molecular divergence across an average of 11K genes and fitting geographic clines to an average of 7.5K variants, we characterize how patterns of genomic differentiation and introgression change through time. Across this range of divergences, we find that genome-wide differentiation increases but becomes no less heterogeneous. In contrast, we find that introgression heterogeneity decreases dramatically, suggesting that time helps isolated genomes "congeal." Thus, this work emphasizes the pivotal role that history plays in driving lineage divergence.
Introgression
Lineage (genetic)
Divergence (linguistics)
Coalescent theory
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Genetically modified crops have the potential to eliminate hunger and starvation in millions of people, especially in developing countries because the genetic modification can produce large amounts of foods that are more nutritious. Large quantities are produced because genetically modified crops are more resistant to pests and drought. They also contain greater amounts of nutrients, such as proteins and vitamins. However, there are concerns about the safety of genetically modified crops. The concerns are that they may contain allergenic substances due to introduction of new genes into crops. Another concern is that genetic engineering often involves the use of antibiotic-resistance genes as "selectable markers" and this could lead to production of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains that are resistant to available antibiotics. This would create a serious public health problem. The genetically modified crops might contain other toxic substances (such as enhanced amounts of heavy metals) and the crops might not be "substantially equivalent" in genome, proteome, and metabolome compared with unmodified crops. Another concern is that genetically modified crops may be less nutritious; for example, they might contain lower amounts of phytoestrogens, which protect against heart disease and cancer. The review of available literature indicates that the genetically modified crops available in the market that are intended for human consumption are generally safe; their consumption is not associated with serious health problems. However, because of potential for exposure of a large segment of human population to genetically modified foods, more research is needed to ensure that the genetically modified foods are safe for human consumption.
Bacillus thuringiensis
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Genetic modification entails incorporating DNA into an organism’s genome as well as putting new DNA into plant cells in order to create a genetically modified plant. Chemicals are poured into plants to improve product sizes and productivity in genetically modified organisms (GMOs), a type of clinical farming. The goal of genetic modification is to provide enhanced features to plants by altering their genetic makeup. This is done by inserting a novel gene or gene into the genome of a plant. Flavr Savr tomatoes were the first genetically modified plants, and they were modified to delay the ripening process, preventing tenderness and rot. Complete crop production increased significantly after the introduction of GM crops at some point during the generation; some of these increases may be due to GM technologies and crop protection advances that have been made possible, despite the fact that GM crops adopted so far are not crop yields. GMOs gain humanity when they are utilized for purposes like improving the availability and quality of food and hospital therapy, as well as contributing to a cleaner environment. If employed correctly, they have the potential to improve the economy without inflicting more harm than good, as well as gain from its ability to alleviate hunger and sickness around the world. However, the full potential of GMOs cannot be identified without thorough research and attention to the dangers associated with each new GMO on a particular scenario basis. Improved resistance to disease and pests can be achieved by genetic modification. It may enable the production of more nutritious staple plants that provide key micronutrients that are frequently lacking in the diets of poor people. As a result, the purpose of this review was to assess the deployment of genetically engineered crops and their effects on modern agriculture progress.
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Progress, which is brought by new advances in modern molecular biology, allowed interference in the genome of live organisms and gene manipulation. Introducing new genes to the recipient organism enables to give them new features, absent before. Continuous increase in the area of the biotech crops triggers continuous discussion about safety of genetically modified (GM) crops, including food and feed derived from them. Important issue connected with cultivation of genetically modified crops is a horizontal gene transfer and a bacterial antibiotic resistance. Discussion about safety of GM crops concerns also food allergies caused by eating genetically modified food. The problem of genetic modifications of GM crops used for livestock feeding is widely discussed, taking into account Polish feed law.
Gene transfer
Genetically modified food
Animal Feed
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Bacillus thuringiensis
Cry1Ac
Bt Cotton
Biosafety
Crop Protection
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Genetic modification is the alteration of genetic material that would not occur naturally. It can be used as a tool to improve the quality of foods. Through genetic modification foods can be produced in larger quantities by increasing its resistance to pests and adverse weather conditions. Their protein and vitamin content may also be increased thus making them more nutritious. There are also claims of potential risks such as possible allergic reactions to modified proteins. To date, no international consensus has been reached for evaluation of the safety of genetically modified plants for consumption. Over the last decade, the safety of genetically modified crops in animal feed or foods for human consumption has been routinely tested in some countries. Protein- and DNA-based methods have been developed for detection of genetically modified organisms. Worldwide legislation now faces questions on the use and labeling requirements of genetically modified crops and their derivatives. Still, there are concerns about the safety of genetically modified crops. Also, genetically modified crops could contain toxic substances or larger amounts of heavy metals and the crops might not be substantially equivalent in genome, proteome, and metabolome to unmodified crops. An additional concern is that contrary to expectations, genetically modified crops may be less nutritious; for example, they might contain lower amounts of essential phytoestrogens, needed to protect against heart disease and cancer. This review will focus on perspectives of the genetically modified food crops.
Key words: Food crops, genetic modification, transgenic, biotechnology-derived crops
Genetically modified food
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The employment of genetically modified organisms as food and feed products in the market is increasing dramatically from year to year. The estimated global area planted
with genetically modified crops has reached 148 million heactares involving 29 countries in year 2010. Important genetically modified traits include herbicide tolerance
traits encoded by the 5’-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (Cp4 epsps) gene derived from Agrobacterium sp. and insect resistance traits encoded by the cry gene derived from Bacillus thuringiensis. Worldwide commercialization of food and feed products containing the genetically modified material has raised concern from the public regarding food safety issues as well as destruction of biodiversity. Thus, many countries have established labeling legislation for genetically modified food and feed products based on a certain threshold level of their genetically modified content. The stakeholders of food and feed product companies are required to comply with the legislation to import or export their products globally.
To date, several different screening and quantification assays have been developed depending on either protein or DNA as target molecules. The purpose of this study was
to detect the presence of herbicide resistance Roundup ready soybean (RRS), insect resistance BT maize event 176 and insect resistance BT maize event CBH 351 (tradename StarLink corn) in food and feed products collected from the Malaysian market, by utilizing the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. This study also aimed to develop a quantitative system to determine the percentage of genetically modified organism content in samples by using the SYBR Green I based real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. In this system, recombinant plasmid DNA is generated and used as a calibrator to establish calibration curves.
The results from the PCR assay show that 108 out of 115 (94%) soybean containing samples were positive for the soybean lectin gene, and 45 out of 108 (42%) samples
were positive for the Cp4 epsps gene specific to RRS including animal feeds (31), processed food (13) and raw soybean (1). Quantitative results showed 34 out of 45 (76%)
samples certainly more than 0.9% of the Roundup ready soybean.
PCR assay showed 80 out of 104 (77%) maize containing samples to be positive for the maize invertase gene; and quantitative results showed 6 samples positive for BT maize
event CBH 351 and 1 sample positive for BT maize event 176. The percentage of StarLink corn certainly positive GMO samples ranged from 0.09% to 2.53%. However, the one sample positive for BT maize event 176 was shown to certain 16.90% of BT maize event 176.
In conclusion, the developed qualitative and quantitative system to determine the presence of genetically modified organism in various kinds of samples in the present study could contribute towards the better post-market surveillance and facilitate the implementation of the labeling process.
Bacillus thuringiensis
Genetically modified food
Genetically modified maize
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Throughout the ages, humans have used selective breeding techniques to create plants and animals with desirable genetic traits. One type of technology, however, has given rise to a host of concerns and questions, namely Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). GMOs are those organisms that have been modified by the application of recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering, a technique used for altering a living organism’s genetic material. With the rapid advances in biotechnology, a number of genetically modified (GM) foods or transgenic crops carrying novel traits have been developed and released for commercial agriculture production. A number of commercialized, genetically engineered (GE) varieties, most notably canola, cotton, maize and soybean, were created using this technology, and at present the traits introduced are herbicide and pest tolerance. Gene technology enables the increase of production in plants, as well as the rise of resistance to pests, viruses, frost, etc. Gene transfer is used to modify the physical and chemical composition and nutritional value of food. On the other hand, negative effects of gene technology on animals, human, and environment should be considered. The present review article is the compilation of various studies that present both positive and negative impacts of genetically modified food on human health and environment.
Genetically engineered
Gene technology
Genetic Engineering
Genetically modified food
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Abstract Extinct lineages can leave legacies in the genomes of extant lineages through ancient introgressive hybridization. The patterns of genomic survival of these extinct lineages provide insight into the role of extinct lineages in current biodiversity. However, our understanding on the genomic landscape of introgression from extinct lineages remains limited due to challenges associated with locating the traces of unsampled ‘ghost’ extinct lineages without ancient genomes. Herein, we conducted population genomic analyses on the East China Sea (ECS) lineage of Chaenogobius annularis , which was suspected to have originated from ghost introgression, with the aim of elucidating its genomic origins and characterizing its landscape of introgression. By combining phylogeographic analysis and demographic modelling, we demonstrated that the ECS lineage originated from ancient hybridization with an extinct ghost lineage. Forward simulations based on the estimated demography indicated that the statistic γ of the HyDe analysis can be used to distinguish the differences in local introgression rates in our data. Consistent with introgression between extant organisms, we found reduced introgression from extinct lineage in regions with low recombination rates and with functional importance, thereby suggesting a role of linked selection that has eliminated the extinct lineage in shaping the hybrid genome. Moreover, we identified enrichment of repetitive elements in regions associated with ghost introgression, which was hitherto little known but was also observed in the re‐analysis of published data on introgression between extant organisms. Overall, our findings underscore the unexpected similarities in the characteristics of introgression landscapes across different taxa, even in cases of ghost introgression.
Introgression
Lineage (genetic)
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Outcrossing
Weedy rice
Introgression
Reproductive isolation
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