Utilization of Satellite Snow-Cover Observations for Seasonal Streamflow Estimates in the Western Himalayas
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The results presented in this study indicate the possibility of seasonal runoff prediction when satellite-derived basin snow-cover data are related to point source river discharge data for a number of years. NOAA-VHRR satellite images have been used to delineate the areal extent of snow cover for early April over the Indus and Kabul River basins in Pakistan. Simple photo-interpretation techniques, using a zoom transfer scope, were employed in transferring satellite snow-cover boundaries onto base map overlays. A linear regression model with April 1 through July 31 seasonal runoff (1974-1979) as a function of early April snow cover explains 73% and 82% of the variance, respectively, of the measured flow in the Indus and Kabul Rivers. The correlation between seasonal runoff and snow cover is significant at the 97% level for the Indus River and at the 99% level for the Kabul River. Combining Rango et al.'s (1977) data for 1969-73 with the above period, the April snow cover explains 60% and 90% of the variance, respectively, of the measured flow in the Indus and Kabul Rivers. In an attempt to improve the Indus relationship, a multiple regression model, with April 1 through July 31, 1969-79, seasonal runoff in the Indus River as a function of early April snow-covered area of the basin and concurrent runoff in the adjoining Kabul River, explains 79% of the variability in flow. Moreover, a significant reduction (27%) in the standard error of estimate results from using the multi-variate model. For each year of the study period, 1969-79, a separate multiple regression equation is developed dropping the data for the year in question from the data-base and using those for the rest of the years. The snow cover area and concurrent runoff data are then used to estimate the snowmelt runoff for that particular year.The difference between the estimated and observed dircharge values averaged over the 11 year study period is 10%. Satellite derived snow-covered area is the best available input for snowmelt-runoff estimation in remote, data sparse basins like the Indus and Kabul Rivers. The study has operational relevance to water resource planning and management in the Himalayan region.Keywords:
Indus
This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction The Drainage Basin The River Evolution of the Indus River The Indus Delta Submarine Indus System Water Management The Indus Dolphins Environmental Changes Human-Induced Changes in the Indus Delta Conclusion References
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We present the text of a large wooden signboard In the Indus-Sarasvatī that was recently found In Dholavira in Gujarat, India. The study of this signboard could be useful in the further analysis of the Indus-Sarasvatī script. We examine its implications for the direction of writing in this script.
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Information on river flows is essential for water resources management. Most of the Brazilian small watersheds is ungauged. Regionalization of hydrologic information is an alternative way to get this lacking information. The regionalization models, however, are a simplified representation of natural phenomena, what could lead to miscalculation. Therefore, these models should be tested before being used as a management tool. This paper evaluates the performance of the regionalization models created for the Santa Barbara River Basin region, in Goias. This river basin is located between 17o45’ and 18o15’ South and 49o36’ and 50o03’ West and has a catchment area of 1371,16 km2. The models estimate average streamflow, maximum streamflow, minimum streamflow, the 95% duration streamflow, the seven day, ten years, minimum streamflow and the monthly-average streamflows. The tested streamflow regionalization models proved to be good enough for average flows, but not for maximum and minimum events. The models based on homogeneous regions were superior to those that ignored that aspect. The model that uses drainage area and density to estimate the 95% duration streamflow could be used in water resources management with little error. The use of this model would better represent the water availability at Santa Barbara River Basin than a few local measurements currently used.
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Both sensitivity-based method and simulation method are used to analyze the streamflow response to climate variability and human activities in the upper catchment of the Yellow River Basin (UYRB) in this study. The separation regime of effects from climate variability and human activities is investigated. Results show that the changes of streamflow are more sensitive to precipitation than potential evapotranspiration (PET). Effect of climate variability on streamflow estimated using the sensitivity-based method is weak in the upper catchment of Jimai station, and strong in the upper catchment of Lanzhou station, where the climate effects accounted for about 50% of total streamflow changes. Effects of human activities on streamflow accounted for about 40% in the UYRB, with weaker effects in the upper catchment of Tangnaihai station than those in the upper catchment of Lanzhou station. Both climate variability and human activities are main factors to affect the changes of streamflow in the UYRB.
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The bitter partition of British India in 1947 created a fault line through the middle of what was once the Indus civilization (see main text) that to this day prevents Indian and Pakistani researchers working on Indus sites from collaborating with one another or even visiting each other9s excavations.
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In this paper,measured data of precipitation,evaporation,temperature and runoff from meteorological and hydrometric stations in the studied basins were used for researching the changing trend and features of the runoff from the mountain areas of some main rivers in the region.The result shows that there is a decreasing trend of mean annual runoff in Shiyang river drainage basin,in easten and middle reaches,there is a decreasing trend,but in weasten reaches is tend to increase.The average distribution of the runoff due to the conditions of supply,the runoff of season in turn for the summer,autumn and spring and winter.There is a decreasing trend in the observations on runoff in four seasons,most significant decreases occur in summer,the least in winter;It is also found that the vibration periods of 6~7 a,9~10 a long period and 2~3 a short period are displayed very clear in Shiyang river drainage basin.The probability of mean water is the biggest in different age in Shiyang river drainage basin.On the attribution,we calculated the correlation coefficients of climate factors with runoff,positive correlation between runoff and regional precipitation is significant,and negative correlation between runoff and regional evaporation is also significant,indicating that the variations of regional precipitation and evaporation have predominant effect on the runoff variations,and maximum temperature is important factor.And the regional mean and minimum temperature also have different influences on the runoff variations.Synthetic effect of regional climatic elements is the prime cause for runoff variations in the source region of the Shiyang river drainage basin.
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This paper describes a decipherment of the Indus script. The decipherment is based on observed similarities between Protocuneiform script and the Indus script. Meanings were transferred from Protocuneiform characters to characters in Indus script, and Dravidian words were used to obtain sounds for Indus script characters. Correlation between Brahmi letters and corresponding Indus characters were further used to correct the readings obtained. These readings show that Indus civilisation was largely Dravidian. It also shows that caste divisions specific to modern South India existed in Indus civilisation. Representative caste names can still be identified in North and South India. These readings also establish with a high probability that Protocuneiform script influenced the Indus script and that Brahmi script, at least partially, originated from the Indus script
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This paper describes a decipherment of the Indus script. The decipherment is based on observed similarities between Protocuneiform script and the Indus script. Meanings were transferred from Protocuneiform characters to characters in Indus script, and Dravidian words were used to obtain sounds for Indus script characters. Correlation between Brahmi letters and corresponding Indus characters were further used to correct the readings obtained. These readings show that Indus civilisation was largely Dravidian. It also shows that caste divisions specific to modern South India existed in Indus civilisation. Representative caste names can still be identified in North and South India. These readings also establish with a high probability that Protocuneiform script influenced the Indus script and that Brahmi script, at least partially, originated from the Indus script
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At a meeting last week, three independent teams offered preliminary evidence that the Ghaggar-Hakra River system was at most a modest seasonal stream during and after the Indus flourished from 2500 B.C.E. to 1900 B.C.E., which may prompt a re-evaluation of how Indus peoples acquired water for agriculture.
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