The Pathogenesis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease II: Viral Pathways in Swine, Small Ruminants, and Wildlife; Myotropism, Chronic Syndromes, and Molecular Virus-Host Interactions
Jonathan ArztBarry BaxtMarvin J. GrubmanT. JacksonNicholas JuleffJack C. RhyanElizabeth RiederRyan WatersLuis L. Rodrı́guez
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Abstract:
Investigation into the pathogenesis of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has focused on the study of the disease in cattle with less emphasis on pigs, small ruminants and wildlife. 'Atypical' FMD-associated syndromes such as myocarditis, reproductive losses and chronic heat intolerance have also received little attention. Yet, all of these manifestations of FMD are reflections of distinct pathogenesis events. For example, naturally occurring porcinophilic strains and unique virus–host combinations that result in high-mortality outbreaks surely have their basis in molecular-, cellular- and tissue-level interactions between host and virus (i.e. pathogenesis). The goal of this review is to emphasize how the less commonly studied FMD syndromes and host species contribute to the overall understanding of pathogenesis and how extensive in vitro studies have contributed to our understanding of disease processes in live animals.Keywords:
Pathogenesis
Viral Pathogenesis
In January 2010, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) occurred for the first time in 8 years in Korea. The outbreaks were because of A serotype, different from the O type, which had occurred previously in 2000 and 2002. The FMD outbreaks were identified in seven farms, consisting of six cattle farms where viruses were detected and one deer farm where only FMDV antibody was detected. The seven farms were within 9.3 km of each other. All susceptible animals within 10 km radius of the outbreak farms were placed under movement restrictions for 3–11 weeks. No vaccination took place to facilitate the clinical observation of infected animals and virus detection. After clinical observations and serological tests within the control zones showed no evidence of FMD infection, the movement restrictions were lifted, followed by FMD-free declaration (23 March) at 80 days after the first outbreak on 2 January. This communication describes the outbreak of FMD A serotype, and control measures applied to eradicate the disease in Korea.
Disease Control
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Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a primary transboundary livestock disease of international concern. Outbreaks of the disease have recently occurred in several countries that were previously FMD-free. For countries with limited direct experience of this disease, modelling is a useful tool for the study of a potential outbreak. The objectives of this study were to determine specific FMD risk parameters for Minnesota and the United States (USA) and to use these parameters to create a baseline FMD outbreak model for Minnesota. Of specific interest was to assess whether the type of herd in which the outbreak began (a dairy herd or a large-scale swine herd) influenced the basic model outcomes of outbreak size and duration, and to examine the effects of depopulation and movement controls. The mean values for disease duration, outbreak duration and number of farms and animals infected were larger in the scenario with a dairy index herd. The results of these two outbreak models demonstrated the entire spectrum of FMD outbreak types; that is, from limited, focal outbreaks to widespread, uncontrolled outbreaks. The findings from this study provide details of a baseline model that emergency preparedness planners can use to evaluate response strategies for a potential incursion of FMD into the USA. These findings are also of value for all countries as veterinary authorities develop or adjust their FMD emergency response plans.
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The consequences of the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 2001 in The Netherlands can still be noticed in the daily work of the veterinarians involved. In particular, the number off arm animals has decreased, regulations have changed, and cattle farmers have become more confrontational. While the psychosocial consequences to veterinarians of the outbreak have decreased compared with immediately after the outbreak, this decrease is not statistically significant. Moreover, 40% of the veterinarians involved still show signs of a traumatic stress reaction. Should another outbreak occur, it is important that local veterinarians are contacted, in order to improve communication with cattle farmers.
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Objective To understand the epidemiologic characteristics of hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks,so as to provide basis for effective intervention.Methods Monitoring data from China information system for disease control and prevention and data from information management system of Shenzhen were collected for synthetic analysis.Results From January 2005 to June 2009,22 hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks(180 patients reported) occurred in Longgang district,which accounted for 12.29% of the total infectious disease outbreaks.Hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks occurred mainly in preschools,and March to June were its predilection seasons.Coxsackievirus A 16 was the only positive specimen in 2005 and 2006,while enteroviers 71 prevailed mainly in 2008 and 2009.Correlation analysis indicated that duration period of epidemic situation was positively related to non-prompt epidemic handling significantly.The duration of epidemic situation would extend one day for each 1.14 days delay in dealing with outbreaks or 1.31 patients increase in each hand-foot-mouth disease outbreak.Conclusions Hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks increased significantly in Longang district of Shenzhen City,preschools are the main place of hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks,and prompt epidemic handling is the control emphasis for hand-foot-mouth disease outbreaks.
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease
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Imported cattle gave rise to an epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Italy during 1993. Four outbreaks occurred in large housed beef herds in Verona province. Investigations revealed that there were no movements of livestock out of the infected premises and meteorological analyses suggested that the airborne spread of infectious particles had been limited by the anticyclonic conditions. Surveillance was therefore concentrated on the areas immediately surrounding the outbreaks and the infection was prevented from spreading.
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Objective
Analyzing epidemiological characteristics and etiology of hand, foot and mouth disease outbreaks from 2011 to 2012 in Shenzhen to provide the basis for prevention and control of hand, foot and mouth disease.
Methods
The data about epidemiology of hand, foot and mouth disease outbreaks was analyzed and Viral RNA was used for enterovirus type 71 (EV71), coxsackie virus type A16(CA16) and Pan-enterovirus (PE) detection by real-time RT-PCR.
Results
A total of 501 specimens from 160 hand, foot and mouth disease outbreaks were collected and detected between 2011 and 2012. EV71 was responsible for 36 outbreaks (22.50%), CA16 was responsible for 52 outbreaks (32.50%) and other enteroviruses were responsible for 40 outbreaks (25%). 84 outbreaks (52.50%) occurred in Nanshan District in Shenzhen and 36 outbreaks (22.50%) occurred in Luohu District in Shenzhen. Outbreaks occurred throughout the year except August between 2011 and 2012.There were two peak periods from March to July and September to November, respectively. The positive rates of male and female are 72.3%and 73.4%, respectively.
Conclusion
There was variation in hand, foot and mouth disease outbreaks in different regions and months.There was no significant difference between gender.CA16 was the main causative agent of hand, foot and mouth disease in 2011, while non-EV71and non-CA16 human enterovirus were main pathogens of hand, foot and mouth disease outbreaks in 2012.
Key words:
Hand foot and mouth disease; Clustering in outbreak; Enterovirus type 71(EV71); Coxsackievirus A16(CA16)
Enterovirus 71
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease
Etiology
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Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease to which dairy cattle are highly susceptible. This study quantified the association of FMD outbreak with fertility impairments in large scale dairy farms with a history of FMD outbreaks in the recent past. 507 cows were recorded for the period of six weeks before, six weeks during and six weeks after foot and mouth disease outbreaks. Data were subjected to general linear model and means comparison. Results showed that abortion before foot and mouth disease outbreak was (0.19%), while during and after FMD was (2.77%, 0.99%). The retained placenta before FMD was significant (0.19%), but during the outbreak was (1.3%) and after the outbreak was (0.59%). The conception failure or the repeated insemination for the three periods: before, during and after foot and mouth disease outbreaks was (12.47%, 6.33%, and 4.95%).
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Japan reported to the OIE that the reoccurrence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was in Miyazaki Prefecture, in April 20, 2010, with 16 beef cattle outbreaks due to serotype O virus by RT-PCR test in National Institute of Animal Health. This was the first occurrence of FMD since March 2000. In the end of April, the outbreaks involved buffalos, cattle and pigs were 12 cases with 4,369 susceptible animals. All animals in the affected farm were destroyed. The stamping-out method and movement restrictions within 10 km around the affected farm have been implemented. In May, the outbreaks were continued severe epidemic and emergency vaccination campaign against FMD was started on 22 May to all domestic susceptible animals kept in unaffected farms in movement control areas established within 10 km. As the end of May, number of the outbreaks was on a steady rise and the epidemic was not resolved. In June 14, the outbreaks were recorded 289 cases with 193,295 susceptible animals.
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