Biology of Bone Tissue: Structure, Function, and Factors That Influence Bone Cells
Rinaldo Florêncio-SilvaGisela Rodrigues da Silva SassoEstela Sasso‐CerriManuel de Jesus SimõesPaulo Sérgio Cerri
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Abstract:
Bone tissue is continuously remodeled through the concerted actions of bone cells, which include bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts, whereas osteocytes act as mechanosensors and orchestrators of the bone remodeling process. This process is under the control of local (e.g., growth factors and cytokines) and systemic (e.g., calcitonin and estrogens) factors that all together contribute for bone homeostasis. An imbalance between bone resorption and formation can result in bone diseases including osteoporosis. Recently, it has been recognized that, during bone remodeling, there are an intricate communication among bone cells. For instance, the coupling from bone resorption to bone formation is achieved by interaction between osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Moreover, osteocytes produce factors that influence osteoblast and osteoclast activities, whereas osteocyte apoptosis is followed by osteoclastic bone resorption. The increasing knowledge about the structure and functions of bone cells contributed to a better understanding of bone biology. It has been suggested that there is a complex communication between bone cells and other organs, indicating the dynamic nature of bone tissue. In this review, we discuss the current data about the structure and functions of bone cells and the factors that influence bone remodeling.Keywords:
Bone remodeling period
Osteocyte
Bone remodeling
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Bone tissue
Osteocyte
Sclerostin
Bone canaliculus
Bone cell
Bone remodeling
Homeostasis
Bone remodeling period
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Osteoclasts and osteoblasts play a major role in bone tissue homeostasis. The homeostasis and integrity of bone tissue are maintained by ensuring a balance between osteoclastic and osteogenic activities. The remodeling of bone tissue is a continuous ongoing process. Osteoclasts mainly play a role in bone resorption, whereas osteoblasts are mainly involved in bone remodeling processes, such as bone cell formation, mineralization, and secretion. These cell types balance and restrict each other to maintain bone tissue metabolism. Bone tissue is very sensitive to mechanical stress stimulation. Unloading and loading of mechanical stress are closely related to the differentiation and formation of osteoclasts and bone resorption function as well as the differentiation and formation of osteoblasts and bone formation function. Consequently, mechanical stress exerts an important influence on the bone microenvironment and bone metabolism. This review focuses on the effects of different forms of mechanical stress stimulation (including gravity, continuously compressive pressure, tensile strain, and fluid shear stress) on osteoclast and osteoblast function and expression mechanism. This article highlights the involvement of osteoclasts and osteoblasts in activating different mechanical transduction pathways and reports changings in their differentiation, formation, and functional mechanism induced by the application of different types of mechanical stress to bone tissue. This review could provide new ideas for further microscopic studies of bone health, disease, and tissue damage reconstruction.
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Bone matrix
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Mechanical stress is an essential factor for physiological response and maintaining homeostasis of living bodies. Bone changes its molphology and density in response to the physical circumstances such as mechanical stress. Bone tissue remodeling is regulated by the cells in bone: osteoblasts, osteoclasts and their progenitors. Recently, osteocytes terminally differentiated from osteoblasts have been considered to play significant role in bone remodeling and act as mechanosensitive cells. We have previously demonstrated that osteocytes early respond to mechanical compressive force and produce osteopontin to act as mechanotransducers, which induce bone resorption in the experimental tooth movement model. Meanwhile, we also found that CCN2/CTGF expression, hereby apoptosis is induced in osteocytes in response to compressive mechanical stress triggering bone resorption. These results indicate that osteocytes are the major mechanosensitive cells in bone tissues and involved in regulation of osteoclastic bone resorption. In this review, I would like to describe the action of compressive mechanical stress in osteocytes and discusse the molecular and cellular mechanisms of mechanosensing and mechanotransduction leading to the induction of osteocyte apoptosis and thereafter, to the increase of bone resorption.
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Osteocytes are the most abundant cell type in bone and are distributed throughout the mineralised bone matrix forming an interconnected network that ideally positions them to sense and to respond to local biomechanical and systemic stimuli to regulate bone remodelling and adaptation. The adaptive process is dependent on the coordinated activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts that form a so called bone multicellular unit that remodels cortical and trabecular bone through a process of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, followed by a phase of bone formation mediated by osteoblasts. Osteocytes mediate their effects on bone remodelling via both cell–cell interactions with osteoclasts and osteoblasts, but also via signaling through the release of soluble mediators. The remodelling process provides a mechanism for adapting the skeleton to local biomechanical factors and systemic hormonal influences and for replacing bone that has undergone damage from repetitive mechanical loading.
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Remodeling permits the bone to preserve its static and dynamic functions. If this process is disturbed the bone becomes more susceptible to fracture. Remodeling also allows the bone to play a major role as a bank of mineral substances, mainly calcium and phosphorus. The remodeling activities, a very precise sequence of events, concerns compact bone tissue of cortices, as well as cancellous bone tissue. After activation, leading to the birth of osteoclasts from hemopoietic stem cells, there is an osteoclastic resorption forming Howship lacunae. Then, and following a reversal phase, osteoblasts come from osteoprogenitor cells and rebuild bone tissue during the formation phase. There is a coupling, in space and time, between resorption and formation activities (Frost 1973). The purpose of this paper is to review the transmission electron microscopy aspects of bone tissue in order to evaluate (a) the composition of calcified and not yet calcified matrix, (b) the structure and role of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, (c) the aspects of bone cells not directly involved in bone remodeling, such as osteocytes and lining cells.
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