Tin‐containing layered double hydroxides: Synthesis and application in poly(vinyl chloride) cable formulations
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SUMMARY Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) and Sn‐containing LDHs have been synthesized using a co‐precipitation method, and the resulting products have been characterized by X‐ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Brunauer‐Emmett‐Teller(BET) surface area measurement, clearly showing that Sn‐containing LDH hybrids have been successfully prepared. TEM shows the ‘house‐of‐cards’ structure of the Sn‐LDHs produced, resulting from the edge‐to‐face interaction of the LDH layers. Higher tin levels lead to an additional magnesium hydroxystannate, MgSn(OH) 6 , (‘MHS’) phase that is present in the form of approximately 40‐nm cubic particles in an LDH/MHS hybrid structure. FTIR and XRD suggest that, at low levels of Sn, the Sn 4+ may exist in the form of amorphous hydrated tin(IV) oxide rather than being incorporated into the LDH lattice. These powders have been compounded into poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and their fire performance has been evaluated using limited oxygen index and cone calorimeter techniques. Peak rate of heat release and smoke parameter can be reduced by 64% and 81%, respectively, when replacing 10 wt% of the primary ATH fire‐retardant filler by the synthesized Sn‐LDHs, while keeping the total fire‐retardant loading at 100 phr. Thermogravimetric analysis indicates that Sn‐LDH is an effective char promoter for PVC. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Keywords:
Layered double hydroxides
Thermogravimetric analysis
Cone calorimeter
Limiting oxygen index
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The flammability characterisation and synergistic flame retardant mechanism of La2O3 in the ethylene vinyl acetate/Mg(OH)2 blends were studied by limiting oxygen index, UL 94 test and cone calorimeter test. The results showed that the addition of a given amount of La2O3 decreased the limiting oxygen index value somewhat but enhance the UL 94 test. The data obtained from the cone calorimeter test indicated that the addition of La2O3 greatly reduced the heat release rate and prolonged the ignition time.
Limiting oxygen index
Cone calorimeter
Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Limiting
Heat of combustion
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In 1998, the Building Standard Law of Japan was revised to emphasize performance-based regulations rather than conventional conformity to specifications. The method of evaluating fire-retardant material was also changed and the cone calorimeter test was adopted. Although chemical agents that contain phosphorus and nitrogen are widely used to make fire-retardant wood, there are few results of cone calorimeter tests to show the relationship between impregnated quantity of fire retardant and its performance. In this study, a commercial fire retardant whose main component is poly-phosphatic carbamate was impregnated in a 15-mm-thick Japanese red pine specimen, and the fire performance was tested by the cone calorimeter test. When the impregnated fire retardant was over 80 kg/m 3 , specimens showed the performance of fire-retardant material. When there was more than 160 kg/m 3 of fire retardant, specimens met the criteria of quasi-noncombustible materials. However, it is not always desirable to put chemically treated materials on the surface where people can touch. The fire-retardant properties of wood specimens whose surface was covered with untreated veneer were also tested by the cone calorimeter. When the thickness of the veneer was 0.5 mm (230 g/m 2 in weight), the fire-performance criterion of the specimen remained the same.
Cone calorimeter
Fire performance
Softwood
Fire test
Calorimeter (particle physics)
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Cone calorimeter
Limiting oxygen index
Flame test
Flame spread
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The phenolic resin,PA6 and PPO were used as multiple charring agent to flame HIPS with the micro-capsulated red phosphorus together.In order to improve the flame retardant effect,mixture uniform design was used in the optimization of flame retardant conditions by preparing HIPS flame retardant composites.The limiting oxygen index as appraisal standard,mathematical model was established,which revealed the relationship among the MRP,PF,PA6 and PPO.Based on the analysis of the empirical model,the optimized parameters had been obtained,the limiting oxygen index was up to 30 %.Experimental results showed that the MRP with phenolic resin,and PPO was superior for flaming retardant HIPS.
Limiting oxygen index
Charring
Limiting
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Intumescent
Limiting oxygen index
Cone calorimeter
Thermogravimetric analysis
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Polyamide 66 (PA66) benefits from excellent mechanical properties and good chemical resistance, which enabled wide application of this material in various industrial fields; however, it suffers from high flammability. Generally, preparation of a flame retardant PA from a reactive flame retardant involves a two-step process. In this study, the flame retardant PA66s (FRPA66s) are synthesized via a one-pot melt copolycondensation route by using a reactive phosphorus-containing flame retardant (FR-B). Then, molecular weight, some mechanical and thermal properties along with flame retardant properties of FRPA66s were investigated by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), instron material testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG) analysis, vertical burning test (UL 94), and limiting oxygen index test (LOI) techniques. The experimental results confirmed that FRPA66s synthesized by the one-pot method have very similar properties compared to those obtained via the two-step process. Moreover, the prepared materials showed good non-flammability behavior with limiting oxygen index value of over 30% and a vertical burning test result of V-0 rating.
Limiting oxygen index
Thermogravimetry
Flame test
Gel permeation chromatography
Thermogravimetric analysis
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Environment friendly and flame retardant polycarbonate(PC) was prepared by resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) as flame retardants and nano-SiO2 as synergistic agent.When loaded nano-SiO2 and RDP,respectively,a limiting oxygen index of at least 29 % and V-0 grade wereobtained.Morphology of the pyrolysis residue was investigated by SEM.The results of TGA,FTIR,SEM and optical micrographs showed that a little quantity of nano-SiO2 could increase the charresidue and stablize chars to improve the flame retardant performance of materials.
Limiting oxygen index
Resorcinol
Polycarbonate
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The flame retardant performance, emission of toxic fumes, flame retardant mechanism of new fire retardant coatings made from expandable graphite contrasting are compared with those of traditional intumescent fire (retardant) coatings by various parameters such as MLR, HRR, EHC, SEA, CO2, CO and TTI. These parameters were measured by Cone calorimeter with irradiance of 20kW/m~2. Results show that the new coatings are superior to the traditional intumescent fire retardant coatings in the flame retardant performance, fire-resistant time, and (emission) of toxic fumes, due to the fact that the new coatings involve more char with good heat stability in the course of degradation.
Intumescent
Cone calorimeter
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Due to their very high levels of flame retardancy, chlorinated and brominated flame retardants had been the most widely used flame retardant additives in plastics industry. However, these flame retardants lead to formation of very toxic volatiles and by-products during fire. Therefore, the recent trend is to replace all of them with non-halogenated flame retardants. In this respect, the use of nanoclays as a synergist flame retardant is becoming more and more important. Thus, the main aim of this work was to investigate the synergistic flame retardant effect of nanoclays with phosphorous compounds in polyamide-6 composites. For this purpose, exfoliated clay nanocomposites of flame retarded/glass fiber reinforced polyamide-6 were prepared by melt compounding. A flame retardant based on phosphorus compounds was used at various levels in glass fiber reinforced polyamide-6 and nanocomposites. Flammability and fire behaviors were evaluated by limiting oxygen index, UL94 and cone calorimeter tests. Substitution of a certain fraction of the flame retardant with nanoclays was found to significantly reduce the peak heat release rate and delay the ignition in cone calorimeter. Moreover, remarkable improvements were obtained in limiting oxygen index along with maintained UL94 ratings.
Limiting oxygen index
Cone calorimeter
Compounding
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Cone calorimeter
Intumescent
Limiting oxygen index
Thermal Stability
Ammonium bromide
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Citations (37)