Understanding the relationships between air quality and human health
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Population Health
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This second of two parts continues with the development of a framework for understanding air quality issues and their relationship to human health. Recognized health effects associated with air pollution are described and current controversies regarding ozone and PM 10 are briefly outlined. Epidemiological methods of investigating air quality effects are discussed, comparing recent landmark studies in Canada. Comparative prevalence studies do not reflect the state of the art in air pollution epidemiology but are frequently cited and conducted in Canada as if they were definitive. The implications of setting air quality standards and objectives on this basis or to meet arbitrary levels of risk of health effects are examined. The current state of the art does not support risk‐based air quality standards. A policy of continuous improvement is most protective of both human health and the environment.
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The health burden of environmental exposures, including ambient air pollution and climate-change-related health impacts, is not equally distributed between or within regions and countries. These inequalities are currently receiving increased attention in environmental research as well as enhanced appreciation in environmental policy, where calls for environmental equity are more frequently heard. The World Health Organization (WHO) 2006 Global Update of the Air Quality Guidelines attempted to address the global-scale inequalities in exposures to air pollution and the burden of diseases due to air pollution. The guidelines stop short, however, of addressing explicitly the inequalities in exposure and adverse health effects within countries and urban areas due to differential distribution of sources of air pollution such as motor vehicles and local industry, and differences in susceptibility to the adverse health effects attributed to air pollution. These inequalities, may, however, be addressed in local air quality and land use management decisions. Locally, community-based participatory research can play an important role in documenting potential inequities and fostering corrective action. Research on environmental inequities will also benefit from current efforts to (1) better understand social determinants of health and (2) apply research evidence to reduce health disparities. Similarly, future research and policy action will benefit from stronger linkages between equity concerns related to health consequences of both air pollution exposure and climate change, since combustion products are important contributors to both of these environmental problems.
Equity
Environmental Justice
Global Health
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Air quality is impacting health in many cities in most countries because of particulate pollution, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. Very small particulates from engine emissions and coal fired electric power plants enter the lungs and pollute the blood of urban residents leading to a burden of disease with more than 3 million premature deaths per year attributed to outdoor air pollution. Welfare losses including premature deaths associated with air pollution were about $5 trillion in 2013. A global transition to electric vehicles, and the generation of electricity without combustion emissions would improve air quality significantly and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This transition is in progress in many parts of the world with more than 2 million electric vehicles in service in 2017. Electric bus and electric taxi sales are increasing, and many large cities have multiple programs to improve air quality. When health costs are considered, it is very appropriate for communities to take action to improve air quality and health. This work reviews and reports many positive actions that are in progress in larger cities.
Particulate Pollution
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Air pollution is a significant problem in cities and urban centers in the Republic of North Macedonia. This report is one in a series of three reports on air quality management (AQM) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and North Macedonia. It examines the nature and magnitude of ambient air pollution (AAP) in North Macedonia. It provides estimates of the health burden, and economic cost associated with the health impacts, of AAP, that is, particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less (PM2.5) in North Macedonia. It also analyzes the roles of various sources of PM2.5 emissions on ambient air quality in North Macedonia at the national level. The institutional and policy framework for AQM in the country is examined, including contributions of other development institutions in supporting North Macedonia’s efforts to address air pollution. Furthermore, the report presents experiences of selected countries that have applied different policy, investment, and technical interventions for air pollution, prevention, reduction, and abatement. Finally, it provides recommendations for reducing air pollution in North Macedonia. People in North Macedonia and living in the Balkans and Eastern Europe are typically breathing more toxic particulate air pollution than their neighbors in Western Europe. This is due to fewer air pollution reduction policies and more solid fuel heating and cooking (meaning many more residential wood and coal stoves) in Eastern European and Balkan countries compared to the rest of Europe. Western Europe has mostly moved away from coal-fired power plants (or at least has pledged to reduce coal consumption to meet climate goals), but in the Balkans and in Eastern Europe they are still widely in use. In fact, the Balkan region is home to many coal and lignite-fired units and to 7 of the 10 most polluting coal-fired power stations in Europe.
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Criteria air contaminants
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Criteria air contaminants
Air pollutant concentrations
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Air pollution is an emerging public health concern as there are increasing evidences that the quality of air adversely affects human health due to the presence of various toxic pollutants. Linking air pollution from its source to adverse human health effects is a complicated phenomenon that requires a multidisciplinary approach for better understanding. Decision-makers need relevant, comprehensive estimates of the disease burden attributable to different risk factors. Many statistical models have become very relevant for estimating atmospheric concentrations by analysis of complex datasets to produce inferences and predictions that can lead to better management of air pollution. This paper focuses on the Indian scenario as a case study and presents the current status of air quality in India with special reference to particulate matter. The study suggest that air-quality networks need to be developed that can depict and forecast pollution levels with health advisories for public and for pollution emergencies measures. Development of statistical models, and methods for Big Data Analytics, can yield a wide array of actionable insights to facilitate policy decisions. Models may also be used to predict the cost of the air-pollution control measures as well as the benefits in terms of the control of acute and chronic diseases caused by air pollution. This study concludes that the application of statistical models and algorithms can act as an important tool to bridge the gap between science and policy.
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Criteria air contaminants
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Rapid economic growth has brought many benefits to India; the environment has suffered, exposing the population serious air pollution [1]. The consequences of pollution have led to poor urban air quality in many Indian cities. The air pollution and the resultant air quality can be attributed to emissions from transportation, industrial and domestic activities. The air quality has been, therefore, an issue of social concern in the backdrop of various developmental activities. Though the measurement of air quality is complicated, there are a few pollutants which regulators keep a watchful eye on through regular monitoring. The most watched pollutants include particular matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)[2]. Due to pollution, the ambient air quality in major cities in India is now very poor. The annual average concentration of suspended particulate matter (PM10) is very high in Indian cities. In particular, many cities have exceeded the officially designated critical levels, not to mention the ambient air quality standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO). There is an urgent need to adopt various strategies in planning air quality, total air quality control to improve urban air quality. Epidemiological studies should be taken up to show how ambient air pollution is affecting peopleâs health and quantify this information in order to provide policy tools for air quality planning. Exposure to air pollutants is largely beyond the control of individuals and requires action by public authorities at the national, regional and even international levels. The norms for ambient air quality have been revisited and various industry specific emissions standards are to be revisited and notified from time to time
Air pollutant concentrations
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In China, the effect of air pollution on human health has been widely concerned and the acknowledge of health effects of air pollution has become the important basis of making related environmental control policies. This paper brought air pollution factors into health production function model and utilized related statistical data to evaluate the effect of air pollution on human health in China. The result showed that, from 2001 to 2007, with each 1% rising of air pollution degree in China, the human mortality will be increased by nearly 0.015%. While from the variation of effects of air pollution on human health before and after 2004, we found that the influencing elasticity of air pollution on human mortality after 2004 was increased by 23% than that before 2004. Therefore, in order to improve the human health condition, China must strictly control air pollution and expedite the pollution treatment.
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