Does gender role explain a high risk of depression? A meta-analytic review of 40 years of evidence.

Abstract Background This meta-analytic review aimed to systematically evaluate associations of depression with multiple gender role dimensions (masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and undifferentiated traits) and to determine potential moderators (participant characteristics, study instruments and sociocultural factors) of the relationship. Methods Of 4481 initially identified records in three electronic databases, 58 studies published 1978 to 2021 were included for meta-analysis. Results (1) Association of depression and gender role is moderated by study year and human development indices. (2) Masculinity is a protective factor for depression, while this dominance has declined as life expectancy increases. (3) A negative, weak but significant association between depression and femininity is observed in women, and college students, which starts to emerge with the gradual increase in the national education and income index from 1990 to 2019. (4) Androgynous individuals reported the lowest level of depression as compared with other gender role orientations (masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated trait group). This disparity is becoming more extreme with life expectancy and per capita income index increases. Limitations English-language studies were only included in this review. Conclusions Androgyny might be the most ideal gender role protecting both women and men from depression.