Use of three-dimensional organoids and lung-on-a-chip methods to study lung development, regeneration and disease

Differences in lung anatomy between mice and humans as well as frequently disappointing results when using animal models for drug discovery emphasise the unmet need for in vitro models that can complement animal studies and improve our understanding of human lung physiology, regeneration and disease. Recent papers have highlighted the use of three-dimensional (3D) organoids and organs-on-a-chip to mimic tissue morphogenesis and function in vitro . Here, we focus on the respiratory system and provide an overview of these in vitro models which can be derived from primary lung cells, pluripotent stem cells, as well as healthy or diseased lungs. We emphasise their potential application in studies of respiratory development, regeneration and disease modelling.