The emergence of semiconductors: Nineteenth century modern physics

Volta’s invention of the battery at the end of the eighteenth century generated an era of research devoted to electrical conduction. Classical theory served well for currents in metals, but was contradicted by behavior observed in other materials. Such behavior was labeled anomalous and not understood. Similarities between such substances were known by about 1885; the term Halbleiter (semiconductors) first appeared in the literature in 1911. The twentieth century began with other discoveries that more dramatically contradicted classical theory and drove the development of quantum mechanics. In contrast, the earlier anomalies remained baffling until quantum mechanics could be applied. This converse relationship leads to questions about the coverage of history in modern physics courses.