Effect assessment of reclaimed water and carbamazepine exposure on the thyroid axis of X. laevis: Apical and histological effects

There is increasing environmental concern about the constant presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface water, generally attributed to water discharge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) that are unable to completely remove these compounds. The slight, but continuous, presence of these contaminants in reclaimed water (RW) poses a risk of chronic and sublethal toxicity, and the thyroid axis can likely be a target of many of these PPCPs. In this work, we addressed the effects of RW on the Xenopus laevis thyroid system. The Amphibian Metamorphosis Assay (AMA test) was used with modifications by exposing X. laevis tadpoles to RW samples, and to RW spiked with carbamazepine (CBZ) at 100 and 1000 higher than the average levels environmentally relevant (RW 100x and RW 1000x, respectively). Carbamazepine was selected because it is considered a marker of anthropogenic pollution and could have a potential effect on the thyroid axis. The morphological endpoints and histological alterations to the thyroid gland were evaluated. The results suggested the stimulation of the thyroid gland from exposures to the RW samples, supported by tadpoles' accelerated development and by the histological alterations observed in the thyroid gland. Developmental acceleration was also seen in the tadpoles exposed to the RW-100x and -1000x samples at comparable levels to those seen in exposures to RW samples alone. Hence CBZ did not seem to increase the effects of RW on the thyroid axis. Overall, our results suggested endocrine effects of these RW samples regardless of the CBZ concentration.