Vision Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory: A Critical Analysis

In recent years, vision has become a major theme in language motivation research, capturing a core feature of modern theories of language motivation. However, empirical investigations have mostly followed the prototypical design of administering self-report questionnaires and examining correlations among a handful of variables. At the same time, substantial overlap can be found between the current conceptualization of vision theory and the long-standing tradition of goal-setting theory. After demonstrating this substantial overlap, and taking our cues from goal-setting theory, this paper highlights critical gaps in current research into vision, including its sensory element, characteristics of effective vision, vision evolution over time, vision multiplicity and potential inter-vision conflict, vision mediators, collective vision, and the role of emotions and self-satisfaction at the end. The ultimate aim of this article is to propose a research agenda to examine the extent to which vision can be meaningfully distinguished from goal