Critical Evaluation of Analytical Procedures for the Determination of Lead in Seawater

Abstract: This article presents a critical evaluation of the analytical procedures used for the determination of lead in seawater, which is important because lead is a good indicator of marine pollution caused by human activities. Sampling, storage, and pretreatment techniques are briefly overviewed, including the significance of systematic errors that cannot be corrected later on. The main techniques in this article are electrothermal–atomic absorption spectrometry (ET-AAS), inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and voltammetry. Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) and inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) are treated as well, although their limits of quantification are not sufficient for a determination of lead in unpolluted seawater. Even when separation and preconcentration techniques are applied, these techniques are only capable of detecting lead in polluted coastal seawater. Separation and preconcentration are actually also required for ET-AAS an...