Tumor-released autophagosomes induces CD4 + T cell-mediated immunosuppression via a TLR2–IL-6 cascade

CD4+ T cells are critical effectors of anti-tumor immunity, but how tumor cells influence CD4+ T cell effector function is not fully understood. Tumor cell-released autophagosomes (TRAPs) are being recognized as critical modulators of host anti-tumor immunity during tumor progression. Here, we explored the mechanistic aspects of TRAPs in the modulation of CD4+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment. TRAPs isolated from tumor cell lines and pleural effusions or ascites of cancer patients were incubated with CD4+ T cells to examine the function and mechanism of TRAPs in CD4+ T cell differentiation and function. TRAPs-elicited CD4+ T cells were tested for their suppression of effector T cell function, induction of regulatory B cells, and promotion of tumorigenesis and metastasis in a mouse model. Heat shock protein 90α (HSP90α) on the surface of TRAPs from malignant effusions of cancer patients and tumor cell lines stimulated CD4+ T cell production of IL-6 via a TLR2–MyD88–NF-κB signal cascade. TRAPs-induced autocrine IL-6 further promoted CD4+ T cells secretion of IL-10 and IL-21 via STAT3. Notably, TRAPs-elicited CD4+ T cells inhibited CD4+ and CD8+ effector T cell function in an IL-6- and IL-10-dependent manner and induced IL-10-producing regulatory B cells (Bregs) via IL-6, IL-10 and IL-21, thereby promoting tumor growth and metastasis. Consistently, inhibition of tumor autophagosome formation or IL-6 secretion by CD4+ T cells markedly retarded tumor growth. Furthermore, B cell or CD4+ T cell depletion impeded tumor growth by increasing effector T cell function. HSP90α on the surface of TRAPs programs the immunosuppressive functions of CD4+ T cells to promote tumor growth and metastasis. TRAPs or their membrane-bound HSP90α represent important therapeutic targets to reverse cancer-associated immunosuppression and improve immunotherapy.