Racial Inequality in Brazil from Independence to the Present

Brazil has come nearer to equality among races; yet the breach between black and white remains wide. This chapter considers racial inequality in the period after independence (1822), encompassing the abolition of slavery (1888). The social construction of race and its historiography are discussed, and new time series are presented on life expectancy, literacy, schooling, occupation, and income for Afro-Brazilian, white, Asian, and indigenous peoples. There has been major, albeit uneven, progress in these terms since slavery, which has unfortunately not wholly translated into equality of income: only in 2010 did the black-to-white income ratio eclipsed its 1960 level, although it appears to be at an all-time high. Education and migration were important factors in closing the gap, whereas school quality and discrimination may explain its persistence. The post-abolition era has received much attention, but long-run data on racial outcomes are scarce.