Transparency of machine-learning in healthcare: The GDPR & European health law

Machine-learning (‘ML’) models are powerful tools which can support personalised clinical judgments, as well as patients’ choices about their healthcare. Concern has been raised, however, as to their ‘black box’ nature, in which calculations are so complex they are difficult to understand and independently verify. In considering the use of ML in healthcare, we divide the question of transparency into three different scenarios: