Coupled effects of solution chemistry and hydrodynamics on the mobility and transport of quantum dot nanomaterials in the vadose zone

Abstract To investigate the coupled effects of solution chemistry and hydrodynamics on the mobility of quantum dot (QD) nanoparticles in the vadose zone, laboratory scale transport experiments involving single and/or sequential infiltrations of QDs in unsaturated and saturated porous media, and computations of total interaction and capillary potential energies were performed. As ionic strength increased, QD retention in the unsaturated porous media increased; however, this retention was significantly suppressed in the presence of a non-ionic surfactant in the infiltration suspensions as indicated by surfactant enhanced transport of QDs. In the vadose zone, the non-ionic surfactant limited the formation of QD aggregates, enhanced QD mobility and transport, and lowered the solution surface tension, which resulted in a decrease in capillary forces that not only led to a reduction in the removal of QDs, but also impacted the vadose zone flow processes. When chemical transport conditions were favorable (ionic strength of 5 × 10 −4  M and 5 × 10 −3  M, or ionic strengths of 5 × 10 −2  M and 0.5 M with surfactant), the dominating phenomena controlling the mobility and transport of QDs in the vadose zone were meso-scale processes, where infiltration by preferential flow results in the rapid transport of QDs. When chemical transport conditions were unfavorable (ionic strength of 5 × 10 −2  M and 0.5 M) the dominating phenomena controlling the mobility and transport of QDs in the vadose zone were pore-scale processes governed by gas–water interfaces (GWI) that impact the mobility of QDs. The addition of surfactant enhanced the transport of QDs both in favorable and unfavorable chemical transport conditions. The mobility and retention of QDs was controlled by interaction and capillary forces, with the latter being the most influential. GWI were found to be the dominant mechanism and site for QD removal compared with solid–water interfaces (SWI) and pore straining. Additionally, ripening phenomena were demonstrated to enhance QDs removal or retention in porous media and to be attenuated by the presence of surfactant.