Quantitative methods in bone densitometry

1 Introduction.- Composition of Bone Tissue.- Bone Strength and Bone Mass.- Bone Mass Measurements.- 2 Radiographic Film Methods.- Radiographic Diagnosis (Radioscopy).- Trabecular Indices.- Principles of Radiogrammetry.- Combined Cortical Thickness.- Barnett-Nordin Index.- Cortical Area.- Percent Cortical Area.- Exton-Smith Index.- Principles of Metacarpal Measurements.- Magnification Techniques.- Vertebral Measurements.- Radius Measurements.- Precision and Accuracy (Radiogrammetry).- Clinical Measurements.- Radiographic Photodensitometry.- Precision and Accuracy (Photodensitometry).- Videodensitometry.- 3 Single-Photon Absorptiometry.- Principles of Measurement.- X-ray Tube Sources for SPA.- Multiwire Proportional Counters.- Two-Dimensional SPA.- Precision and Accuracy (SPA).- Effects of Adipose Tissue.- Clinical Measurements.- SPA in Children.- Fracture Risk.- Radiation Dose to Patients.- 4 Dual-Photon Absorptiometry.- Principles of Measurement.- Instrumentation and System Design.- Beam Hardening and Crossover Corrections.- Correction for Fat.- Precision and Accuracy.- Total-Body Bone Mineral Measurements.- Clinical Measurements.- Fracture Threshold.- Radiation Dose to Patients.- 5 Quantitative Computed Tomography.- Monoenergetic (Gamma) CT.- Precision and Accuracy (Gamma-CT).- Single-Energy X-ray Quantitative CT.- Precision and Accuracy (Single-Energy X-ray CT).- Beam-Hardening Effects.- Partial Volume Effects.- Effects of Marrow Fat.- Dual-Energy X-ray Quantitative CT.- Precision and Accuracy (Dual-Energy CT).- Clinical Measurements.- Radiation Dose to Patients.- 6 Scattering Methods in Densitometry.- Compton-Scatter Imaging Methods.- Fixed-Point Compton-Scatter Methods.- Dual-Source/Dual-Detector Methods.- Dual-Source/Single-Detector Methods.- Single-Source/Single-Detector Methods.- Single-Source/Dual-Detector Method.- Finite Geometry Effects.- Multiple Scattering.- Clinical Measurements.- Coherent/Compton-Scatter Methods.- 7 Activation Analysis Methods.- Principles of Measurement.- Partial-Body NAA.- Precision and Accuracy (NAA).- Clinical Measurements.- Radiation Dose to Patients (NAA).- Proton Activation Analysis (PAA).- Muonic X-ray Excitation.- 8 Clinical Applications and Comparison of Methods.- References.